bims-auttor Biomed News
on Autophagy and mTOR
Issue of 2021‒10‒24
48 papers selected by
Viktor Korolchuk, Newcastle University
  1. The dynamics of mitochondrial autophagy at the initiation stage.
  2. The SZT2 Interactome Unravels New Functions of the KICSTOR Complex.
  3. Full-coverage regulations of autophagy by ROS: from induction to maturation.
  4. Precise control of mitophagy through ubiquitin proteasome system and deubiquitin proteases and their dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.
  5. Involvement of Autophagy in Ageing and Chronic Cholestatic Diseases.
  6. GAK and PRKCD are positive regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy.
  7. Pib2 as an Emerging Master Regulator of Yeast TORC1.
  8. Cell adhesion suppresses autophagy via Src/FAK-mediated phosphorylation and inhibition of AMPK.
  9. Autophagy plays a double-edged sword role in liver diseases.
  10. SEA and GATOR 10 Years Later.
  11. Roles for Lo microdomains and ESCRT in ER stress-induced lipid droplet microautophagy in budding yeast.
  12. Activation of mTORC1 by Free Fatty Acids Suppresses LAMP2 and Autophagy Function via ER Stress in Alcohol-Related Liver Disease.
  13. The interplay between pathogens and Atg8 family proteins: thousand-faced interactions.
  14. Autophagy and the Lysosomal System in Cancer.
  15. mTORC1-induced retinal progenitor cell overproliferation leads to accelerated mitotic aging and degeneration of descendent Müller glia.
  16. Mechanistic insights into an atypical interaction between ATG8 and SH3P2 in Arabidopsis thaliana.
  17. Autophagy and bone diseases.
  18. AKAP13 couples GPCR signaling to mTORC1 inhibition.
  19. Short-Term Sleep Fragmentation Dysregulates Autophagy in a Brain Region-Specific Manner.
  20. Role of autophagy in follicular development and maintenance of primordial follicular pool in the ovary.
  21. Programmed cortical ER collapse drives selective ER degradation and inheritance in yeast meiosis.
  22. Mitophagy reporter mouse analysis reveals increased mitophagy activity in disuse-induced muscle atrophy.
  23. Autophagy Is Polarized toward Cell Front during Migration and Spatially Perturbed by Oncogenic Ras.
  24. m6A reader YTHDC1 modulates autophagy by targeting SQSTM1 in diabetic skin.
  25. REDD1 deletion attenuates cancer cachexia in mice.
  26. Monitoring basal autophagy in the retina utilizing CAG-mRFP-EGFP-MAP1LC3B reporter mouse: technical and biological considerations.
  27. Proteostasis deregulation as a driver of C9ORF72 pathogenesis.
  28. Ceramide accumulation induces mitophagy and impairs β-oxidation in PINK1 deficiency.
  29. Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Protein Misfolding and Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease: Roads to Biomarker Discovery.
  30. Potential Roles of Sestrin2 in Alzheimer's Disease: Antioxidation, Autophagy Promotion, and Beyond.
  31. Fission Yeast TORC2 Signaling Pathway Ensures Cell Proliferation under Glucose-Limited, Nitrogen-Replete Conditions.
  32. Regulatory insights into progression of cancer and Alzheimer's disorder from autophagy perspective.
  33. Role of the Transcriptional Repressor Zinc Finger with KRAB and SCAN Domains 3 (ZKSCAN3) in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells.
  34. ATG8ylation of proteins: A way to cope with cell stress?
  35. DIRAS3: An Imprinted tumor suppressor gene that regulates RAS and PI3K-driven cancer growth, motility, autophagy and tumor dormancy.
  36. RIPK1 regulates starvation resistance by modulating aspartate catabolism.
  37. mTORC1 promotes malignant large cell/anaplastic histology and is a targetable vulnerability in SHH-TP53 mutant medulloblastomas.
  38. TCTP protein degradation by targeting mTORC1 and signaling through S6K, Akt, and Plk1 sensitizes lung cancer cells to DNA-damaging drugs.
  39. New Insights into Molecular Mechanisms Mediating Adaptation to Exercise; A Review Focusing on Mitochondrial Biogenesis, Mitochondrial Function, Mitophagy and Autophagy.
  40. Plant Polyphenols for Aging Health: Implication from Their Autophagy Modulating Properties in Age-Associated Diseases.
  41. The pro-autophagic protein AMBRA1 coordinates cell cycle progression by regulating CCND (cyclin D) stability.
  42. The imbalance of PGD2-DPs pathway is involved in the type 2 diabetes brain injury by regulating autophagy.
  43. Lysosomal Zn2+ release triggers rapid, mitochondria-mediated, non-apoptotic cell death in metastatic melanoma.
  44. Deficiency of the Lysosomal Protein CLN5 Alters Lysosomal Function and Movement.
  45. Ulk1, Not Ulk2, Is Required for Exercise Training-Induced Improvement of Insulin Response in Skeletal Muscle.
  46. Characterisation of autophagy disruption in the ileum of pigs infected with Lawsonia intracellularis.
  47. Cell Death and Survival Pathways Involving ATM Protein Kinase.
  48. Lipophagy mediated glucose-induced changes of lipid deposition and metabolism via ROS dependent AKT-Beclin1 activation.
  1. Biochem Soc Trans. 2021 Oct 19. pii: BST20210272. [Epub ahead of print]
    The dynamics of mitochondrial autophagy at the initiation stage.
    Nicholas T Ktistakis.
      The pathway of mitochondrial-specific autophagy (mitophagy, defined here as the specific elimination of mitochondria following distinct mitochondrial injuries or developmental/metabolic alterations) is important in health and disease. This review will be focussed on the earliest steps of the pathway concerning the mechanisms and requirements for initiating autophagosome formation on a mitochondrial target. More specifically, and in view of the fact that we understand the basic mechanism of non-selective autophagy and are beginning to reshape this knowledge towards the pathways of selective autophagy, two aspects of mitophagy will be covered: (i) How does a machinery normally working in association with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to make an autophagosome can also do so at a site distinct from the ER such as on the surface of the targeted cargo? and (ii) how does the machinery deal with cargo of multiple sizes?
    Keywords:  autophagy; endoplasmic reticulum; imaging techniques; mitochondria
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1042/BST20210272
  2. Cells. 2021 Oct 09. pii: 2711. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    The SZT2 Interactome Unravels New Functions of the KICSTOR Complex.
    Cecilia Cattelani, Dominik Lesiak, Gudrun Liebscher, Isabel I Singer, Taras Stasyk, Moritz H Wallnöfer, Alexander M Heberle, Corrado Corti, Michael W Hess, Kristian Pfaller, Marcel Kwiatkowski, Peter P Pramstaller, Andrew A Hicks, Kathrin Thedieck, Thomas Müller, Lukas A Huber, Mariana Eca Guimaraes de Araujo.
      Seizure threshold 2 (SZT2) is a component of the KICSTOR complex which, under catabolic conditions, functions as a negative regulator in the amino acid-sensing branch of mTORC1. Mutations in this gene cause a severe neurodevelopmental and epileptic encephalopathy whose main symptoms include epilepsy, intellectual disability, and macrocephaly. As SZT2 remains one of the least characterized regulators of mTORC1, in this work we performed a systematic interactome analysis under catabolic and anabolic conditions. Besides numerous mTORC1 and AMPK signaling components, we identified clusters of proteins related to autophagy, ciliogenesis regulation, neurogenesis, and neurodegenerative processes. Moreover, analysis of SZT2 ablated cells revealed increased mTORC1 signaling activation that could be reversed by Rapamycin or Torin treatments. Strikingly, SZT2 KO cells also exhibited higher levels of autophagic components, independent of the physiological conditions tested. These results are consistent with our interactome data, in which we detected an enriched pool of selective autophagy receptors/regulators. Moreover, preliminary analyses indicated that SZT2 alters ciliogenesis. Overall, the data presented form the basis to comprehensively investigate the physiological functions of SZT2 that could explain major molecular events in the pathophysiology of developmental and epileptic encephalopathy in patients with SZT2 mutations.
    Keywords:  KICSTOR; SZT2; autophagy; ciliogenesis; epilepsy; mTORC1; neurodegeneration; neurogenesis
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102711
  3. Autophagy. 2021 Oct 18. 1-16
    Full-coverage regulations of autophagy by ROS: from induction to maturation.
    Jing Zhou, Xin-Yu Li, Yu-Jia Liu, Ji Feng, Yong Wu, Han-Ming Shen, Guo-Dong Lu.
      Macroautophagy/autophagy is an evolutionarily well-conserved recycling process in response to stress conditions, including a burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. High level of ROS attack key cellular macromolecules. Protein cysteinyl thiols or non-protein thiols as the major redox-sensitive targets thus constitute the first-line defense. Autophagy is unique, because it removes not only oxidized/damaged proteins but also bulky ROS-generating organelles (such as mitochondria and peroxisome) to restrict further ROS production. The oxidative regulations of autophagy occur in all processes of autophagy, from induction, phagophore nucleation, phagophore expansion, autophagosome maturation, cargo delivery to the lysosome, and finally to degradation of the cargo and recycling of the products, as well as autophagy gene transcription. Mechanically, these regulations are achieved through direct or indirect manners. Direct thiol oxidation of key proteins such as ATG4, ATM and TFEB are responsible for specific regulations in phagophore expansion, cargo recognition and autophagy gene transcription, respectively. Meanwhile, oxidation of certain redox-sensitive chaperone-like proteins (e.g. PRDX family members and PARK7) may impair a nonspecifically local reducing environment in the phagophore membrane, and influence BECN1-involved phagophore nucleation and mitophagy recognition. However, ROS do exhibit some inhibitory effects on autophagy through direct oxidation of key autophagy regulators such as ATG3, ATG7 and SENP3 proteins. SQSTM1 provides an alternative antioxidant mechanism when autophagy is unavailable or impaired. However, it is yet to be unraveled how cells evolve to equip proteins with different redox susceptibility and in their correct subcellular positions, and how cells fine-tune autophagy machinery in response to different levels of ROS.Abbreviations: AKT1/PKB: AKT serine/threonine kinase 1; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; ATG: autophagy related; ATM: ATM serine/threonine kinase; BAX: BCL2 associated X, apoptosis regulator; BECN1: beclin 1; BH3: BCL2-homology-3; CAV1: caveolin 1; CCCP: carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone; CTSB: cathepsin B; CTSL: cathepsin L; DAPK: death associated protein kinase; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; ETC: electron transport chain; GSH: glutathione; GSTP1: glutathione S-transferase pi 1; H2O2: hydrogen peroxide; HK2: hexokinase 2; KEAP1: kelch like ECH associated protein 1; MAMs: mitochondria-associated ER membranes; MAP1LC3B/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; MAPK8/JNK1: mitogen-activated protein kinase 8; MAP3K5/ASK1: mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 5; MCOLN1: mucolipin 1; MMP: mitochondrial membrane potential; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NFE2L2/NRF2: nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2; NFKB1: nuclear factor kappa B subunit 1; NOX: NADPH oxidase; O2-: superoxide radical anion; p-Ub: phosphorylated Ub; PARK7/DJ-1: Parkinsonism associated deglycase; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; PEX5: peroxisomal biogenesis factor 5; PINK1: PTEN induced kinase 1; PPP3CA/calcineurin: protein phosphatase 3 catalytic subunit beta; PRDX: peroxiredoxin; PRKAA1: protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 1; PRKD/PKD: protein kinase D; PRKN/parkin: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; PtdIns3K: class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate; PTEN: phosphatase and tensin homolog; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SENP3: SUMO specific peptidase 3; SIRT1: sirtuin 1; SOD1: superoxide dismutase 1; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; SUMO: small ubiquitin like modifier; TFEB: transcription factor EB; TRAF6: TNF receptor associated factor 6; TSC2: TSC complex subunit 2; TXN: thioredoxin; TXNRD1: thioredoxin reductase 1; TXNIP: thioredoxin interacting protein; Ub: ubiquitin; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1.
    Keywords:  ATGs; ROS; autophagy; oxidative regulation; protein thiols
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1984656
  4. BMB Rep. 2021 Oct 22. pii: 5426. [Epub ahead of print]
    Precise control of mitophagy through ubiquitin proteasome system and deubiquitin proteases and their dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.
    Ga Hyun Park, Joon Hyung Park, Kwang Chul Chung.
      Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases in the elderly population and is caused by the loss of dopaminergic neurons. PD has been predominantly attributed to mitochondrial dysfunction. The structural alteration of α-synuclein triggers toxic oligomer formation in the neurons, which greatly contributes to PD. In this article, we discuss the role of several familial PD-related proteins, such as α-synuclein, DJ-1, LRRK2, PINK1, and parkin in mitophagy, which entails a selective degradation of mitochondria via autophagy. Defective changes in mitochondrial dynamics and their biochemical and functional interaction induce the formation of toxic α-synuclein-containing protein aggregates in PD. In addition, these gene products play an essential role in ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS)-mediated proteolysis as well as mitophagy. Interestingly, a few deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) additionally modulate these two pathways negatively or positively. Based on these findings, we summarize the close relationship between several DUBs and the precise modulation of mitophagy. For example, the USP8, USP10, and USP15, among many DUBs are reported to specifically regulate the K48- or K63-linked de-ubiquitination reactions of several target proteins associated with the mitophagic process, in turn upregulating the mitophagy and protecting neuronal cells from α-synuclein-derived toxicity. In contrast, USP30 inhibits mitophagy by opposing parkin-mediated ubiquitination of target proteins. Furthermore, the association between these changes and PD pathogenesis will be discussed. Taken together, although the functional roles of several PD-related genes have yet to be fully understood, they are substantially associated with mitochondrial quality control as well as UPS. Therefore, a better understanding of their relationship provides valuable therapeutic clues for appropriate management strategies.
  5. Cells. 2021 Oct 16. pii: 2772. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    Involvement of Autophagy in Ageing and Chronic Cholestatic Diseases.
    Claudio Pinto, Elisabetta Ninfole, Antonio Benedetti, Marco Marzioni, Luca Maroni.
      Autophagy is a "housekeeping" lysosomal degradation process involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes in all eukaryotic cells. The dysregulation of hepatic autophagy has been described in several conditions, from obesity to diabetes and cholestatic disease. We review the role of autophagy, focusing on age-related cholestatic diseases, and discuss its therapeutic potential and the molecular targets identified to date. The accumulation of toxic BAs is the main cause of cell damage in cholestasis patients. BAs and their receptor, FXR, have been implicated in the regulation of hepatic autophagy. The mechanisms by which cholestasis induces liver damage include mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and ER stress, which lead to cell death and ultimately to liver fibrosis as a compensatory mechanism to reduce the damage. The stimulation of autophagy seems to ameliorate the liver damage. Autophagic activity decreases with age in several species, whereas its basic extends lifespan in animals, suggesting that it is one of the convergent mechanisms of several longevity pathways. No strategies aimed at inducing autophagy have yet been tested in cholestasis patients. However, its stimulation can be viewed as a novel therapeutic strategy that may reduce ageing-dependent liver deterioration and also mitigate hepatic steatosis.
    Keywords:  FXR; Rubicon; UDCA; ageing; autophagy; cholangiopathies; cholestasis
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102772
  6. Nat Commun. 2021 Oct 20. 12(1): 6101
    GAK and PRKCD are positive regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy.
    Michael J Munson, Benan J Mathai, Matthew Yoke Wui Ng, Laura Trachsel-Moncho, Laura R de la Ballina, Sebastian W Schultz, Yahyah Aman, Alf H Lystad, Sakshi Singh, Sachin Singh, Jørgen Wesche, Evandro F Fang, Anne Simonsen.
      The mechanisms involved in programmed or damage-induced removal of mitochondria by mitophagy remains elusive. Here, we have screened for regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy using an siRNA library targeting 197 proteins containing lipid interacting domains. We identify Cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK) and Protein Kinase C Delta (PRKCD) as regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy, with both being dispensable for PRKN-dependent mitophagy and starvation-induced autophagy. We demonstrate that the kinase activity of both GAK and PRKCD are required for efficient mitophagy in vitro, that PRKCD is present on mitochondria, and that PRKCD facilitates recruitment of ULK1/ATG13 to early autophagic structures. Importantly, we demonstrate in vivo relevance for both kinases in the regulation of basal mitophagy. Knockdown of GAK homologue (gakh-1) in C. elegans or knockout of PRKCD homologues in zebrafish led to significant inhibition of basal mitophagy, highlighting the evolutionary relevance of these kinases in mitophagy regulation.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26331-7
  7. Biomolecules. 2021 Oct 09. pii: 1489. [Epub ahead of print]11(10):
    Pib2 as an Emerging Master Regulator of Yeast TORC1.
    Riko Hatakeyama.
      Cell growth is dynamically regulated in response to external cues such as nutrient availability, growth factor signals, and stresses. Central to this adaptation process is the Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 (TORC1), an evolutionarily conserved kinase complex that fine-tunes an enormous number of cellular events. How upstream signals are sensed and transmitted to TORC1 has been intensively studied in major model organisms including the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This field recently saw a breakthrough: the identification of yeast phosphatidylInositol(3)-phosphate binding protein 2 (Pib2) protein as a critical regulator of TORC1. Although the study of Pib2 is still in its early days, multiple groups have provided important mechanistic insights on how Pib2 relays nutrient signals to TORC1. There remain, on the other hand, significant gaps in our knowledge and mysteries that warrant further investigations. This is the first dedicated review on Pib2 that summarizes major findings and outstanding questions around this emerging key player in cell growth regulation.
    Keywords:  Pib2; TOR; TORC1; mTOR; mTORC1; yeast
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11101489
  8. Cell Signal. 2021 Oct 18. pii: S0898-6568(21)00259-X. [Epub ahead of print] 110170
    Cell adhesion suppresses autophagy via Src/FAK-mediated phosphorylation and inhibition of AMPK.
    Ming Zhao, Darren Finlay, Elizabeth Kwong, Robert Liddington, Benoit Viollet, Norio Sasaoka, Kristiina Vuori.
      Autophagy is a multi-step process regulated in part by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Phosphorylation of threonine 172 on the AMPK α-subunit enhances AMPK kinase activity, resulting in activation of downstream signaling. Integrin-mediated cell adhesion activates Src/ Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) signaling complex, which regulates multiple cellular processes including cell survival. We show here that Src signaling leads to direct phosphorylation of the AMPK-α subunit on a novel site, tyrosine 179, resulting in suppression of AMPK-T172 phosphorylation and autophagy upon integrin-mediated cell adhesion. By using chemical inhibitors, genetic cell models and targeted mutagenesis, we confirm an important role for Src and FAK in suppressing AMPK signaling and autophagy induced by various additional stimuli, including glucose starvation. Furthermore, we found that autophagy suppression by hydroxychloroquine promotes apoptosis in a cancer cell model that had been treated with Src inhibitors. Our findings reveal a link between the Src/ FAK complex and AMPK/ autophagy regulation, which may play an important role in the maintenance of normal cellular homeostasis and tumor progression.
    Keywords:  AMPK; Autophagy; Cell attachment; Src; Tyrosine phosphorylation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2021.110170
  9. J Physiol Biochem. 2021 Oct 18.
    Autophagy plays a double-edged sword role in liver diseases.
    Jing-Chao Zhou, Jing-Lin Wang, Hao-Zhen Ren, Xiao-Lei Shi.
      As a highly evolutionarily conserved process, autophagy can be found in all types of eukaryotic cells. Such a constitutive process maintains cellular homeostasis in a wide variety of cell types through the encapsulation of damaged proteins or organelles into double-membrane vesicles. Autophagy not only simply eliminates materials but also serves as a dynamic recycling system that produces new building blocks and energy for cellular renovation and homeostasis. Previous studies have primarily recognized the role of autophagy in the degradation of dysfunctional proteins and unwanted organelles. However, there are findings of autophagy in physiological and pathological processes. In hepatocytes, autophagy is not only essential for homeostatic functions but also implicated in some diseases, such as viral hepatitis, alcoholic hepatitis, and hepatic failure. In the present review, we summarized the molecular mechanisms of autophagy and its role in several liver diseases and put forward several new strategies for the treatment of liver disease.
    Keywords:  Autophagy,·Liver diseases; Pathophysiology; Treatment
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13105-021-00844-7
  10. Cells. 2021 Oct 08. pii: 2689. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    SEA and GATOR 10 Years Later.
    Yahir A Loissell-Baltazar, Svetlana Dokudovskaya.
      The SEA complex was described for the first time in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae ten years ago, and its human homologue GATOR complex two years later. During the past decade, many advances on the SEA/GATOR biology in different organisms have been made that allowed its role as an essential upstream regulator of the mTORC1 pathway to be defined. In this review, we describe these advances in relation to the identification of multiple functions of the SEA/GATOR complex in nutrient response and beyond and highlight the consequence of GATOR mutations in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.
    Keywords:  GATOR complex; SEA complex; amino acid signaling; autophagy; cancer; epilepsy; mTORC1 pathway; neurological disorders
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102689
  11. Mol Biol Cell. 2021 Oct 20. mbcE21040179
    Roles for Lo microdomains and ESCRT in ER stress-induced lipid droplet microautophagy in budding yeast.
    Pin-Chao Liao, Enrique J Garcia, Gary Tan, Catherine A Tsang, Liza A Pon.
      Microlipophagy (µLP), degradation of lipid droplets (LDs) by microautophagy, occurs by autophagosome-independent direct uptake of LDs at lysosomes/vacuoles in response to nutrient limitations and ER stressors in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In nutrient-limited yeast, liquid-ordered (Lo) microdomains, sterol-rich raft-like regions in vacuolar membranes, are sites of membrane invagination during LD uptake. The endosome sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) is required for sterol transport during Lo formation under these conditions. However, ESCRT has been implicated in mediating membrane invagination during µLP induced by ER stressors or the diauxic shift from glycolysis- to respiration-driven growth. Here, we report that ER stress induced by lipid imbalance and other stressors induces Lo microdomain formation. This process is ESCRT-independent and dependent upon Niemann-Pick type C sterol transfer proteins. Inhibition of ESCRT or Lo microdomain formation partially inhibits lipid imbalance-induced µLP, while inhibition of both blocks this µLP. Finally, although the ER stressors dithiothreitol or tunicamycin induce Lo microdomains, µLP in response to these stressors is ESCRT-dependent and Lo microdomain-independent. Our findings reveal that Lo microdomain formation is a yeast stress response, and stress-induced Lo microdomain formation occurs by stressor-specific mechanisms. Moreover, ESCRT and Lo microdomains play functionally distinct roles in LD uptake during stress-induced µLP.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1091/mbc.E21-04-0179
  12. Cells. 2021 Oct 13. pii: 2730. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    Activation of mTORC1 by Free Fatty Acids Suppresses LAMP2 and Autophagy Function via ER Stress in Alcohol-Related Liver Disease.
    Wei Guo, Wei Zhong, Liuyi Hao, Xinguo Sun, Zhanxiang Zhou.
      Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) is characterized by accumulation of hepatic free fatty acids (FFAs) and liver injury. The present study aimed to investigate if mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) plays a role in FFA-induced organelle dysfunction, thereby contributing to the development of ALD. Cell studies were conducted to define the causal role and underlying mechanism of FFA-activated mTORC1 signaling in hepatocellular cell injury. C57BL/6J wild-type mice were subjected to chronic alcohol feeding with or without rapamycin to inhibit mTORC1 activation. We revealed that palmitic acid (PA)-induced ER stress and suppression of LAMP2 and autophagy flux were mTORC1-dependent as rapamycin reversed such deleterious effects. C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) was downstream of ATF4 which partially modulated LAMP2. Supplementation with rapamycin to alcohol-fed mice attenuated mTORC1 activation and ER stress, restored LAMP2 protein, and improved autophagy, leading to amelioration of alcohol-induced liver injury. Induction of mTORC1 signaling and CHOP were also detected in the liver of patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis. This study demonstrates that hepatic FFAs play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of ALD by activating mTORC1 signaling, thereby inducing ER stress and suppressing LAMP2-autophagy flux pathway, which represents an important mechanism of FFA-induced hepatocellular injury.
    Keywords:  ER stress; LAMP2; alcohol-related liver disease; free fatty acid; inflammation; mTORC1
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102730
  13. FEBS Open Bio. 2021 Oct 20.
    The interplay between pathogens and Atg8 family proteins: thousand-faced interactions.
    Dávid Tóth, Gábor V Horváth, Gábor Juhász.
      Autophagy is an intracellular degradation and recycling process that can also remove pathogenic intracellular bacteria and viruses from within cells (referred to as xenophagy) and activate the adaptive immune responses. But autophagy - especially Atg proteins including Atg8 family members - can also have proviral and probacterial effects. In this review, we summarize known interactions of bacterial, parasitic and viral proteins with Atg8 family proteins and the outcome of these interactions on pathogen replication, autophagy or mitophagy. We discuss the value of prediction software and the research methodology in the study of pathogen protein-Atg8 family protein interactions, with selected examples of potential LIR motif-containing SARS-CoV-2 proteins.
    Keywords:  GABARAP; LC3; LIR motif; SARS-CoV-2; hfAIM; iLIR
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/2211-5463.13318
  14. Cells. 2021 Oct 14. pii: 2752. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    Autophagy and the Lysosomal System in Cancer.
    Suresh Kumar, Miguel Sánchez-Álvarez, Fidel-Nicolás Lolo, Flavia Trionfetti, Raffaele Strippoli, Marco Cordani.
      Autophagy and the lysosomal system, together referred to as the autophagolysosomal system, is a cellular quality control network which maintains cellular health and homeostasis by removing cellular waste including protein aggregates, damaged organelles, and invading pathogens. As such, the autophagolysosomal system has roles in a variety of pathophysiological disorders, including cancer, neurological disorders, immune- and inflammation-related diseases, and metabolic alterations, among others. The autophagolysosomal system is controlled by TFEB, a master transcriptional regulator driving the expression of multiple genes, including autophagoly sosomal components. Importantly, Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production and control are key aspects of the physiopathological roles of the autophagolysosomal system, and may hold a key for synergistic therapeutic interventions. In this study, we reviewed our current knowledge on the biology and physiopathology of the autophagolysosomal system, and its potential for therapeutic intervention in cancer.
    Keywords:  AMPK; TFEB; autophagy; cancer; lysosomes; mTOR; nanoparticles
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102752
  15. Elife. 2021 Oct 22. pii: e70079. [Epub ahead of print]10
    mTORC1-induced retinal progenitor cell overproliferation leads to accelerated mitotic aging and degeneration of descendent Müller glia.
    Soyeon Lim, You-Joung Kim, Sooyeon Park, Ji-Heon Choi, Younghoon Sung, Katsuhiko Nishimori, Zybmek Kozmik, Han-Woong Lee, Jin Woo Kim.
      Retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) divide in limited numbers to generate the cells comprising vertebrate retina. The molecular mechanism that leads RPC to the division limit, however, remains elusive. Here, we find that the hyperactivation of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) in an RPC subset by deletion of tuberous sclerosis complex 1 (Tsc1) makes the RPCs arrive at the division limit precociously and produce Müller glia (MG) that degenerate from senescence-associated cell death. We further show the hyperproliferation of Tsc1-deficient RPCs and the degeneration of MG in the mouse retina disappear by concomitant deletion of hypoxia-induced factor 1-a (Hif1a), which induces glycolytic gene expression to support mTORC1-induced RPC proliferation. Collectively, our results suggest that, by having mTORC1 constitutively active, an RPC divides and exhausts mitotic capacity faster than neighboring RPCs, and thus produces retinal cells that degenerate with aging-related changes.
    Keywords:  developmental biology; mouse
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.70079
  16. Autophagy. 2021 Oct 17. 1-17
    Mechanistic insights into an atypical interaction between ATG8 and SH3P2 in Arabidopsis thaliana.
    Shuangli Sun, Lanlan Feng, Kin Pan Chung, Ka-Ming Lee, Hayley Hei-Yin Cheung, Mengqian Luo, Kaike Ren, Kai Ching Law, Liwen Jiang, Kam-Bo Wong, Xiaohong Zhuang.
      In selective macroautophagy/autophagy, cargo receptors are recruited to the forming autophagosome by interacting with Atg8 (autophagy-related 8)-family proteins and facilitate the selective sequestration of specific cargoes for autophagic degradation. In addition, Atg8 interacts with a number of adaptors essential for autophagosome biogenesis, including ATG and non-ATG proteins. The majority of these adaptors and receptors are characterized by an Atg8-family interacting motif (AIM) for binding to Atg8. However, the molecular basis for the interaction mode between ATG8 and regulators or cargo receptors in plants remains largely unclear. In this study, we unveiled an atypical interaction mode for Arabidopsis ATG8f with a plant unique adaptor protein, SH3P2 (SH3 domain-containing protein 2), but not with the other two SH3 proteins. By structure analysis of the unbound form of ATG8f, we identified the unique conformational changes in ATG8f upon binding to the AIM sequence of a plant known autophagic receptor, NBR1. To compare the binding affinity of SH3P2-ATG8f with that of ATG8f-NBR1, we performed a gel filtration assay to show that ubiquitin-associated domain of NBR1 outcompetes the SH3 domain of SH3P2 for ATG8f interaction. Biochemical and cellular analysis revealed that distinct interfaces were employed by ATG8f to interact with NBR1 and SH3P2. Further subcellular analysis showed that the AIM-like motif of SH3P2 is essential for its recruitment to the phagophore membrane but is dispensable for its trafficking in endocytosis. Taken together, our study provides an insightful structural basis for the ATG8 binding specificity toward a plant-specific autophagic adaptor and a conserved autophagic receptor.Abbreviations: ATG, autophagy-related; AIM, Atg8-family interacting motif; BAR, Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs; BFA, brefeldin A; BTH, benzo-(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester; CCV, clathrin-coated-vesicle; CLC2, clathrin light chain 2; Conc A, concanamycin A; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; LDS, LIR docking site; MAP1LC3/LC3, microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; LIR, LC3-interacting region; PE, phosphatidylethanolamine; SH3P2, SH3 domain containing protein 2; SH3, Src-Homology-3; UBA, ubiquitin-associated; UIM, ubiquitin-interacting motif.
    Keywords:  ATG8 interacting motif; Arabidopsis ATG8; NBR1; SH3P2; selective autophagy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1976965
  17. Joint Bone Spine. 2021 Oct 18. pii: S1297-319X(21)00174-3. [Epub ahead of print] 105301
    Autophagy and bone diseases.
    Marie-Charlotte Trojani, Sabine Santucci-Darmanin, Véronique Breuil, Georges F Carle, Valérie Pierrefite-Carle.
      Autophagy is a ubiquitous cellular process, allowing the removal and recycling of damaged proteins and organelles. At the basal level, this process plays a role in quality control, thus participating in cellular homeostasis. Autophagy can also be induced by various stresses, such as nutrient deprivation or hypoxia, to allow the cell to survive until conditions improve. In recent years, the role of this process has been widely studied in many pathologies such as neurodegenerative diseases or cancers. In bone tissue, various studies have shown that autophagy is involved in the survival, differentiation and activity of osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. The evolution of this knowledge has led to the identification of new molecular pathophysiological mechanisms in bone pathologies. This review reports the current state of knowledge on the role of autophagy in 4 bone diseases: osteoporosis, which seems to be associated with a decrease in autophagy, osteopetrosis and Paget's disease where the course of the autophagic process is disturbed, and finally osteosarcoma where autophagy seems to play a protumoral role. A better understanding of the involvement of autophagy in these pathologies should eventually lead to the identification of new potential therapeutic targets.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Bone; Osteopetrosis; Osteoporosis; Osteosarcoma; Paget’s disease of bone
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2021.105301
  18. PLoS Genet. 2021 Oct 21. 17(10): e1009832
    AKAP13 couples GPCR signaling to mTORC1 inhibition.
    Shihai Zhang, Huanyu Wang, Chase H Melick, Mi-Hyeon Jeong, Adna Curukovic, Shweta Tiwary, Tshering D Lama-Sherpa, Delong Meng, Kelly A Servage, Nicholas G James, Jenna L Jewell.
      The mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) senses multiple stimuli to regulate anabolic and catabolic processes. mTORC1 is typically hyperactivated in multiple human diseases such as cancer and type 2 diabetes. Extensive research has focused on signaling pathways that can activate mTORC1 such as growth factors and amino acids. However, less is known about signaling cues that can directly inhibit mTORC1 activity. Here, we identify A-kinase anchoring protein 13 (AKAP13) as an mTORC1 binding protein, and a crucial regulator of mTORC1 inhibition by G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. GPCRs paired to Gαs proteins increase cyclic adenosine 3'5' monophosphate (cAMP) to activate protein kinase A (PKA). Mechanistically, AKAP13 acts as a scaffold for PKA and mTORC1, where PKA inhibits mTORC1 through the phosphorylation of Raptor on Ser 791. Importantly, AKAP13 mediates mTORC1-induced cell proliferation, cell size, and colony formation. AKAP13 expression correlates with mTORC1 activation and overall lung adenocarcinoma patient survival, as well as lung cancer tumor growth in vivo. Our study identifies AKAP13 as an important player in mTORC1 inhibition by GPCRs, and targeting this pathway may be beneficial for human diseases with hyperactivated mTORC1.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009832
  19. Life (Basel). 2021 Oct 16. pii: 1098. [Epub ahead of print]11(10):
    Short-Term Sleep Fragmentation Dysregulates Autophagy in a Brain Region-Specific Manner.
    Yan Cheng, Woong-Ki Kim, Laurie L Wellman, Larry D Sanford, Ming-Lei Guo.
      In this study, we investigated autophagy, glial activation status, and corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the brains of mice after 5 days of sleep fragmentation (SF). Three different brain regions including the striatum, hippocampus, and frontal cortex were selected for examination based on roles in sleep regulation and sensitivity to sleep disruption. For autophagy, we monitored the levels of various autophagic induction markers including beclin1, LC3II, and p62 as well as the levels of lysosomal associated membrane protein 1 and 2 (LAMP1/2) and the transcription factor EB (TFEB) which are critical for lysosome function and autophagy maturation stage. For the status of microglia and astrocytes, we determined the levels of Iba1 and GFAP in these brain regions. We also measured the levels of CRF and its cognate receptors 1 and 2 (CRFR1/2). Our results showed that 5 days of SF dysregulated autophagy in the striatum and hippocampus but not in the frontal cortex. Additionally, 5 days of SF activated microglia in the striatum but not in the hippocampus or frontal cortex. In the striatum, CRFR2 but not CRFR1 was significantly increased in SF-experienced mice. CRF did not alter its mRNA levels in any of the three brain regions assessed. Our findings revealed that autophagy processes are sensitive to short-term SF in a region-specific manner and suggest that autophagy dysregulation may be a primary initiator for brain changes and functional impairments in the context of sleep disturbances and disorders.
    Keywords:  autophagy; corticotropin releasing factor; microglia; neuroinflammation; sleep fragmentation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/life11101098
  20. J Cell Physiol. 2021 Oct 20.
    Role of autophagy in follicular development and maintenance of primordial follicular pool in the ovary.
    Jitender K Bhardwaj, Aakansha Paliwal, Priyanka Saraf, Som N Sachdeva.
      The reproductive life span of the organism mainly depends on follicular development that maintains the primordial follicle pool in the cohort of follicles within the ovary. The total count of primordial follicles decreases with age due to ovulation and follicular atresia. Follicular atresia, a process of ovarian follicles degradation, mainly occurs via apoptosis, but recent studies also favor autophagy existence. Autophagy is a cellular and energy homeostatic response that helps to maintain the number of healthy primordial follicles, germ cell survival, and removal of corpus luteum remnants. But the excessive autophagic cell death changes both the quality and quantity of oocytes that ultimately affect female reproductive health. Autophagy regulation occurs by various autophagy-regulated genes like BECN1 and LC3-II (autophagy marker genes). Their abnormal regulation or mutation highly influences follicular development by alteration of primordial follicles formation, the decline in oocytes count, and germ cell loss. Various classical signaling pathways such as PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK/ERK1/2, AMPK, and IRE1 are involved in granulosa and oocytes autophagy, while mTOR signaling is the primary mechanism. Along with basal level autophagy, chemical/hormone/stress-mediated autophagy also affects follicular development and female reproduction. In this review, we have primarily focused on granulosa cell and oocytes' autophagy, mechanism, and the role of autophagy determining marker genes in follicular development.
    Keywords:  apoptosis; autophagy; cell death; follicular development; marker genes; ovary
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.30613
  21. J Cell Biol. 2021 Dec 06. pii: e202108105. [Epub ahead of print]220(12):
    Programmed cortical ER collapse drives selective ER degradation and inheritance in yeast meiosis.
    George Maxwell Otto, Tia Cheunkarndee, Jessica Mae Leslie, Gloria Ann Brar.
      The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) carries out essential and conserved cellular functions, which depend on the maintenance of its structure and subcellular distribution. Here, we report developmentally regulated changes in ER morphology and composition during budding yeast meiosis, a conserved differentiation program that gives rise to gametes. A subset of the cortical ER collapses away from the plasma membrane at anaphase II, thus separating into a spatially distinct compartment. This programmed collapse depends on the transcription factor Ndt80, conserved ER membrane structuring proteins Lnp1 and reticulons, and the actin cytoskeleton. A subset of ER is retained at the mother cell plasma membrane and excluded from gamete cells via the action of ER-plasma membrane tethering proteins. ER remodeling is coupled to ER degradation by selective autophagy, which relies on ER collapse and is regulated by timed expression of the autophagy receptor Atg40. Thus, developmentally programmed changes in ER morphology determine the selective degradation or inheritance of ER subdomains by gametes.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202108105
  22. J Cell Physiol. 2021 Nov;236(11): 7612-7624
    Mitophagy reporter mouse analysis reveals increased mitophagy activity in disuse-induced muscle atrophy.
    Shun-Ichi Yamashita, Masanao Kyuuma, Keiichi Inoue, Yuki Hata, Ryu Kawada, Masaki Yamabi, Yasuyuki Fujii, Junko Sakagami, Tomoyuki Fukuda, Kentaro Furukawa, Satoshi Tsukamoto, Tomotake Kanki.
      Muscle disuse induces atrophy through increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) released from damaged mitochondria. Mitophagy, the autophagic degradation of mitochondria, is associated with increased ROS production. However, the mitophagy activity status during disuse-induced muscle atrophy has been a subject of debate. Here, we developed a new mitophagy reporter mouse line to examine how disuse affected mitophagy activity in skeletal muscles. Mice expressing tandem mCherry-EGFP proteins on mitochondria were then used to monitor the dynamics of mitophagy activity. The reporter mice demonstrated enhanced mitophagy activity and increased ROS production in atrophic soleus muscles following a 14-day hindlimb immobilization. Results also showed an increased expression of multiple mitophagy genes, including Bnip3, Bnip3l, and Park2. Our findings thus conclude that disuse enhances mitophagy activity and ROS production in atrophic skeletal muscles and suggests that mitophagy is a potential therapeutic target for disuse-induced muscle atrophy.
    Keywords:  ROS; disuse-induced muscle atrophy; hindlimb immobilization; mitochondria; mitophagy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.30404
  23. Cells. 2021 Oct 02. pii: 2637. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    Autophagy Is Polarized toward Cell Front during Migration and Spatially Perturbed by Oncogenic Ras.
    Manish Kumar Singh, Giulia Zago, Irina Veith, Jacques Camonis, Mathieu Coppey, Maria Carla Parrini.
      Autophagy is a physiological degradation process that removes unnecessary or dysfunctional components of cells. It is important for normal cellular homeostasis and as a response to a variety of stresses, such as nutrient deprivation. Defects in autophagy have been linked to numerous human diseases, including cancers. Cancer cells require autophagy to migrate and to invade. Here, we study the intracellular topology of this interplay between autophagy and cell migration by an interdisciplinary live imaging approach which combines micro-patterning techniques and an autophagy reporter (RFP-GFP-LC3) to monitor over time, during directed migration, the back-front spatial distribution of LC3-positive compartments (autophagosomes and autolysosomes). Moreover, by exploiting a genetically controlled cell model, we assessed the impact of transformation by the Ras oncogene, one of the most frequently mutated genes in human cancers, which is known to increase both cell motility and basal autophagy. Static cells displayed an isotropic distribution of autophagy LC3-positive compartments. Directed migration globally increased autophagy and polarized both autophagosomes and autolysosomes at the front of the nucleus of migrating cells. In Ras-transformed cells, the front polarization of LC3 compartments was much less organized, spatially and temporally, as compared to normal cells. This might be a consequence of altered lysosome positioning. In conclusion, this work reveals that autophagy organelles are polarized toward the cell front during migration and that their spatial-temporal dynamics are altered in motile cancer cells that express an oncogenic Ras protein.
    Keywords:  Ras; autophagy; cancer; micro-patterns; migration
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102637
  24. Autophagy. 2021 Oct 17. 1-20
    m6A reader YTHDC1 modulates autophagy by targeting SQSTM1 in diabetic skin.
    Diefei Liang, Wei-Jye Lin, Meng Ren, Junxiong Qiu, Chuan Yang, Xiaoyi Wang, Na Li, Tingting Zeng, Kan Sun, Lili You, Li Yan, Wei Wang.
      Dysregulation of macroautophagy/autophagy contributes to the delay of wound healing in diabetic skin. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA modification is known to play a critical role in regulating autophagy. In this study, it was found that SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1), an autophagy receptor, was significantly downregulated in two human keratinocyte cells lines with short-term high-glucose treatment, as well as in the epidermis of diabetic patients and a db/db mouse model with long-term hyperglycemia. Knockdown of SQSTM1 led to the impairment of autophagic flux, which was consistent with the results of high-glucose treatment in keratinocytes. Moreover, the m6A reader protein YTHDC1 (YTH domain containing 1), which interacted with SQSTM1 mRNA, was downregulated in keratinocytes under both the acute and chronic effects of hyperglycemia. Knockdown of YTHDC1 affected biological functions of keratinocytes, which included increased apoptosis rates and impaired wound-healing capacity. In addition, knockdown of endogenous YTHDC1 resulted in a blockade of autophagic flux in keratinocytes, while overexpression of YTHDC1 rescued the blockade of autophagic flux induced by high glucose. In vivo, knockdown of endogenous Ythdc1 or Sqstm1 inhibited autophagy in the epidermis and delayed wound healing. Interestingly, we found that a decrease of YTHDC1 drove SQSTM1 mRNA degradation in the nucleus. Furthermore, the results revealed that YTHDC1 interacted and cooperated with ELAVL1/HuR (ELAV like RNA binding protein 1) in modulating the expression of SQSTM1. Collectively, this study uncovered a previously unrecognized function for YTHDC1 in modulating autophagy via regulating the stability of SQSTM1 nuclear mRNA in diabetic keratinocytes.Abbreviations: ACTB: actin beta; AGEs: glycation end products; AL: autolysosome; AP: autophagosome; ATG: autophagy related; AKT: AKT serine/threonine kinase; ANOVA: analysis of variance; BECN1: beclin 1; Co-IP: co-immunoprecipitation; DEGs: differentially expressed genes; DM: diabetes mellitus; ELAVL1: ELAV like RNA binding protein 1; FTO: FTO alpha-ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenase; G: glucose; HaCaT: human keratinocyte; GO: Gene Ontology; GSEA: Gene Set Enrichment Analysis; HE: hematoxylin-eosin; IHC: immunohistochemical; IRS: immunoreactive score; KEAP1: kelch like ECH associated protein 1; KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes; m6A: N6-methyladenosine; M: mannitol; MANOVA: multivariate analysis of variance; MAP1LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAP1LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; MeRIP: methylated RNA immunoprecipitation; METTL3: methyltransferase 3, N6-adenosine-methytransferase complex catalytic subunit; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; MTORC1: mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1; NBR1: NBR1 autophagy cargo receptor; NFE2L2: nuclear factor, erythroid 2 like 2; NG: normal glucose; NHEK: normal human epithelial keratinocyte; OE: overexpressing; p-: phospho-; PI: propidium iodide; PPIN: Protein-Protein Interaction Network; RBPs: RNA binding proteins; RIP: RNA immunoprecipitation; RNA-seq: RNA-sequence; RNU6-1: RNA, U6 small nuclear 1; ROS: reactive oxygen species; siRNAs: small interfering RNAs; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; SRSF: serine and arginine rich splicing factor; T2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TUBB: tubulin beta class I; WT: wild-type; YTHDC1: YTH domain containing 1.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; N6-methyladenosine; RNA stability; YTHDC1; diabetes; wound healing
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1974175
  25. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2021 Oct 21.
    REDD1 deletion attenuates cancer cachexia in mice.
    Brian A Hain, Haifang Xu, Ashley M VanCleave, Bradley S Gordon, Scot R Kimball, David L Waning.
      Cancer cachexia is a wasting disorder associated with advanced cancer that contributes to mortality. Cachexia is characterized by involuntary loss of body weight and muscle weakness that affects physical function. Regulated in DNA damage and development 1 (REDD1) is a stress-response protein that is transcriptionally upregulated in muscle during wasting conditions and inhibits mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). C2C12 myotubes treated with Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC)-conditioned media increased REDD1 mRNA expression and decreased myotube diameter. To investigate the role of REDD1 in cancer cachexia, we inoculated 12-week old male wild-type or global REDD1 knockout (REDD1 KO) mice with LLC cells and euthanized 28-days later. Wild-type mice had increased skeletal muscle REDD1 expression, and REDD1 deletion prevented loss of body weight and lean tissue mass, but not fat mass. We found that REDD1 deletion attenuated loss of individual muscle weights and loss of myofiber cross sectional area. We measured markers of the Akt/mTORC1 pathway and found that, unlike wild-type mice, phosphorylation of both Akt and 4E-BP1 was maintained in the muscle of REDD1 KO mice after LLC inoculation, suggesting that loss of REDD1 is beneficial in maintaining mTORC1 activity in mice with cancer cachexia. We measured Foxo3a phosphorylation as a marker of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway and autophagy and found that REDD1 deletion prevented dephosphorylation of Foxo3a in muscles from cachectic mice. Our data provides evidence that REDD1 plays an important role in cancer cachexia through the regulation of both protein synthesis and protein degradation pathways.
    Keywords:  REDD1; cachexia; muscle
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00536.2021
  26. Autophagy. 2021 Oct 21. 1-15
    Monitoring basal autophagy in the retina utilizing CAG-mRFP-EGFP-MAP1LC3B reporter mouse: technical and biological considerations.
    Sriganesh Ramachandra Rao, Steven J Fliesler.
      We describe the utility of a tandem-tagged autophagy reporter mouse model (CAG-RFP-EGFP-MAP1LC3B) in investigating basal macroautophagic/autophagic flux in the neural retina. Western blot, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and confocal microscopy showed that CAG promoter-driven expression of RFP-EGFP-MAP1LC3B increased "cytosolic" RFP-EGFP-LC3B-I levels, whereas RFP-EGFP-LC3B-II decorates true phagosomes. We verified that the electroretinographic (ERG) responses of tandem-tagged LC3B mice were comparable to those of age-matched controls. Optimized microscope settings detected lipofuscin autofluorescence in retinas of abca4-/- mice. The majority of retinal phagosomes in the reporter mice exhibited only RFP (not EGFP) fluorescence, suggesting rapid maturation of phagosomes. Only ~1.5% of the total phagosome population was EGFP-labeled; RFP-labeled (mature) phagosomes colocalized with lysosomal markers LAMP2 and CTSD. In the outer retina, phagosome sizes were as follows (in µm2, ave ± SEM): RPE, 0.309 ± 0.015; photoreceptor inner segment-myoid, 0.544 ± 0.031; and outer nuclear layer, 0.429 ± 0.011. Detection of RPE phagosomes by fluorescence microscopy is challenging, due to the presence of melanin. Increased lipofuscin autofluorescence, such as observed in the abca4-/- mouse model of Stargardt disease, is a strong confounding factor when attempting to study autophagy in the RPE. In addition to RPE and photoreceptor cells, phagosomes were detected in inner retinal cell types, microglia, astrocytes, and endothelial cells. We conclude that the tandem-tagged LC3B mouse model serves as a useful system for studying autophagy in the retina. This utility, however, is dependent upon several technical and biological factors, including microscope settings, transgene expression, choice of fluorophores, and lipofuscin autofluorescence.Abbreviations: ACTB: actin, beta; AIF1: allograft inflammatory factor 1; ATG: autophagy related; CTSD: cathepsin D; DAPI: (4',6-diamido-2-phenylindole); DIC: differential interference contrast; EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein; ELM: external limiting membrane; ERG: electroretinography; GCL: ganglion cell layer; GLUL: glutamine-ammonia ligase (glutamine synthetase); INL: inner nuclear layer; IS-E/M: inner segment - ellipsoid/myoid; ISH: in situ hybridization; LAMP2: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2; L.I.: laser Intensity; MAP1LC3B: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; O.C.T.: optimal cutting temperature; OS: outer segment; ONL: outer nuclear layer; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; RFP: red fluorescent protein; R.O.I.: region of interest; RPE: retinal pigment epithelium.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; EGFP-LC3B; RFP-EGFP-LC3B; RPE; confocal microscopy; lipofuscin; lysosomes; myoid; photoreceptors; retina
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1969634
  27. J Neurochem. 2021 Oct 22.
    Proteostasis deregulation as a driver of C9ORF72 pathogenesis.
    Paulina Torres, Felipe Cabral-Miranda, Vicente Gonzalez-Teuber, Claudio Hetz.
      Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are two related neurodegenerative disorders that display overlapping features. The hexanucleotide repeat expansion GGGGCC (G4 C2 ) in C9ORF72 gene has been causally linked to both ALS and FTD emergence, thus opening a novel potential therapeutic target for disease intervention. A main driver of C9ORF72 pathology is the disruption of distinct cellular processes involved in the function of the proteostasis network. Here we discuss main findings relating the induction of neurodegeneration by C9ORF72 mutation and proteostasis deregulation, highlighting the role of the endoplasmic reticulum stress, nuclear transport, and autophagy in the disease process. We further discuss possible points of intervention to target proteostasis mediators to treat C9ORF72-linked ALS/FTD.
    Keywords:  ALS; C9ORF72; ER stress; FTD; ISR; UPR; proteostasis
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.15529
  28. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021 Oct 26. pii: e2025347118. [Epub ahead of print]118(43):
    Ceramide accumulation induces mitophagy and impairs β-oxidation in PINK1 deficiency.
    Melissa Vos, Marija Dulovic-Mahlow, Frida Mandik, Lisa Frese, Yuliia Kanana, Sokhna Haissatou Diaw, Julia Depperschmidt, Claudia Böhm, Jonas Rohr, Thora Lohnau, Inke R König, Christine Klein.
      Energy production via the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) and mitophagy are two important processes affected in Parkinson's disease (PD). Interestingly, PINK1, mutations of which cause early-onset PD, plays a key role in both processes, suggesting that these two mechanisms are connected. However, the converging link of both pathways currently remains enigmatic. Recent findings demonstrated that lipid aggregation, along with defective mitochondria, is present in postmortem brains of PD patients. In addition, an increasing body of evidence shows that sphingolipids, including ceramide, are altered in PD, supporting the importance of lipids in the pathophysiology of PD. Here, we identified ceramide to play a crucial role in PINK1-related PD that was previously linked almost exclusively to mitochondrial dysfunction. We found ceramide to accumulate in mitochondria and to negatively affect mitochondrial function, most notably the ETC. Lowering ceramide levels improved mitochondrial phenotypes in pink1-mutant flies and PINK1-deficient patient-derived fibroblasts, showing that the effects of ceramide are evolutionarily conserved. In addition, ceramide accumulation provoked ceramide-induced mitophagy upon PINK1 deficiency. As a result of the ceramide accumulation, β-oxidation in PINK1 mutants was decreased, which was rescued by lowering ceramide levels. Furthermore, stimulation of β-oxidation was sufficient to rescue PINK1-deficient phenotypes. In conclusion, we discovered a cellular mechanism resulting from PD-causing loss of PINK1 and found a protective role of β-oxidation in ETC dysfunction, thus linking lipids and mitochondria in the pathophysiology of PINK1-related PD. Furthermore, our data nominate β-oxidation and ceramide as therapeutic targets for PD.
    Keywords:  PINK1; Parkinson’s disease; ceramide; mitochondria; β-oxidation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2025347118
  29. Biomolecules. 2021 Oct 13. pii: 1508. [Epub ahead of print]11(10):
    Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Protein Misfolding and Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease: Roads to Biomarker Discovery.
    Anna Picca, Flora Guerra, Riccardo Calvani, Roberta Romano, Hélio José Coelho-Júnior, Cecilia Bucci, Emanuele Marzetti.
      Parkinson's Disease (PD) is a highly prevalent neurodegenerative disease among older adults. PD neuropathology is marked by the progressive loss of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta and the widespread accumulation of misfolded intracellular α-synuclein (α-syn). Genetic mutations and post-translational modifications, such as α-syn phosphorylation, have been identified among the multiple factors supporting α-syn accrual during PD. A decline in the clearance capacity of the ubiquitin-proteasome and the autophagy-lysosomal systems, together with mitochondrial dysfunction, have been indicated as major pathophysiological mechanisms of PD neurodegeneration. The accrual of misfolded α-syn aggregates into soluble oligomers, and the generation of insoluble fibrils composing the core of intraneuronal Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites observed during PD neurodegeneration, are ignited by the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The ROS activate the α-syn aggregation cascade and, together with the Lewy bodies, promote neurodegeneration. However, the molecular pathways underlying the dynamic evolution of PD remain undeciphered. These gaps in knowledge, together with the clinical heterogeneity of PD, have hampered the identification of the biomarkers that may be used to assist in diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and prognostication. Herein, we illustrate the main pathways involved in PD pathogenesis and discuss their possible exploitation for biomarker discovery.
    Keywords:  DAMPs; alpha-synuclein; beta-amyloid (Aβ); cytokine; extracellular vesicles; inflammation; mitochondrial-derived vesicles; mitophagy; neurofilaments light chain (NfL); p-tau pathology
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11101508
  30. Biomedicines. 2021 Sep 24. pii: 1308. [Epub ahead of print]9(10):
    Potential Roles of Sestrin2 in Alzheimer's Disease: Antioxidation, Autophagy Promotion, and Beyond.
    Shang-Der Chen, Jenq-Lin Yang, Yi-Heng Hsieh, Tsu-Kung Lin, Yi-Chun Lin, A-Ching Chao, Ding-I Yang.
      Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common age-related neurodegenerative disease. It presents with progressive memory loss, worsens cognitive functions to the point of disability, and causes heavy socioeconomic burdens to patients, their families, and society as a whole. The underlying pathogenic mechanisms of AD are complex and may involve excitotoxicity, excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), aberrant cell cycle reentry, impaired mitochondrial function, and DNA damage. Up to now, there is no effective treatment available for AD, and it is therefore urgent to develop an effective therapeutic regimen for this devastating disease. Sestrin2, belonging to the sestrin family, can counteract oxidative stress, reduce activity of the mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), and improve cell survival. It may therefore play a crucial role in neurodegenerative diseases like AD. However, only limited studies of sestrin2 and AD have been conducted up to now. In this article, we discuss current experimental evidence to demonstrate the potential roles of sestrin2 in treating neurodegenerative diseases, focusing specifically on AD. Strategies for augmenting sestrin2 expression may strengthen neurons, adapting them to stressful conditions through counteracting oxidative stress, and may also adjust the autophagy process, these two effects together conferring neuronal resistance in cases of AD.
    Keywords:  Alzheimer’s disease; autophagy; mTOR; oxidative stress; sestrin2
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9101308
  31. Biomolecules. 2021 Oct 06. pii: 1465. [Epub ahead of print]11(10):
    Fission Yeast TORC2 Signaling Pathway Ensures Cell Proliferation under Glucose-Limited, Nitrogen-Replete Conditions.
    Yusuke Toyoda, Shigeaki Saitoh.
      Target of rapamycin (TOR) kinases form two distinct complexes, TORC1 and TORC2, which are evolutionarily conserved among eukaryotes. These complexes control intracellular biochemical processes in response to changes in extracellular nutrient conditions. Previous studies using the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, showed that the TORC2 signaling pathway, which is essential for cell proliferation under glucose-limited conditions, ensures cell-surface localization of a high-affinity hexose transporter, Ght5, by downregulating its endocytosis. The TORC2 signaling pathway retains Ght5 on the cell surface, depending on the presence of nitrogen sources in medium. Ght5 is transported to vacuoles upon nitrogen starvation. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation to cope with nutritional stress, a response which may be conserved from yeasts to mammals.
    Keywords:  Gad8/AKT kinase; TORC2; arrestin; endocytosis; glucose limitation; hexose transporter; nitrogen starvation; ubiquitylation
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11101465
  32. Mol Biol Rep. 2021 Oct 19.
    Regulatory insights into progression of cancer and Alzheimer's disorder from autophagy perspective.
    Navneeth Sriram, Mahesh Kumar Sah.
      Autophagy is a cellular physiological process which degrades the cytoplasmic debris and also helps in maintaining the cellular homeostasis. Due to gene mutations regulating this, the susceptibility to Cancer and Alzheimer's Disease increases. The mechanism of impairment in the expression of the genes involved in autophagy is context dependent. Autophagy initially acts as a cytoprotective process, but when the disease progresses, it gets into cytotoxic effect. Hence, it is very difficult to design a therapeutic strategy as the switching point where the cytoprotective nature changes into a cytotoxic one is difficult to figure out. The present insight into the interplay of regulatory events and factors responsible for the progression of cancer and Alzheimer's disorder involved with autophagy may pave a way for more promising strategy for therapies.
    Keywords:  Alzheimer’s disorder; Autophagy; Cancer; Gene regulation; Molecular pathways; Neurodegeneration
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-021-06838-4
  33. Cells. 2021 Sep 22. pii: 2504. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    Role of the Transcriptional Repressor Zinc Finger with KRAB and SCAN Domains 3 (ZKSCAN3) in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells.
    Hsuan-Yeh Pan, Mallika Valapala.
      Lysosomes are important for proper functioning of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. RPE cells have a daily burden of phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments (POS) and also degrade cellular waste by autophagy. Here, we identified the role of Zinc-finger protein with KRAB and SCAN domains 3 (ZKSCAN3) in co-ordinate regulation of lysosomal function and autophagy in the RPE. Our studies show that in the RPE, ZKSCAN3 is predominantly nuclear in healthy cells and its nuclear expression is reduced upon nutrient deprivation. siRNA-mediated knockdown of ZKSCAN3 results in de-repression of some of the ZKSCAN3 target genes. Knockdown of ZKSCAN3 also resulted in an induction in autophagy flux, increase in the number of functional lysosomes and accompanied activation of lysosomal cathepsin B activity in ARPE-19 cells. We also demonstrated that inhibition of P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) retains ZKSCAN3 in the nucleus in nutrient-deprived cells. In summary, our studies elucidated the role of ZKSCAN3 as a transcriptional repressor of autophagy and lysosomal function in the RPE.
    Keywords:  autophagy; lysosomal function; retinal pigment epithelium (RPE); zinc finger with KRAB and SCAN domains 3 (ZKSCAN3)
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102504
  34. J Cell Biol. 2021 Nov 01. pii: e202108120. [Epub ahead of print]220(11):
    ATG8ylation of proteins: A way to cope with cell stress?
    Julian M Carosi, Thanh N Nguyen, Michael Lazarou, Sharad Kumar, Timothy J Sargeant.
      The ATG8 family of proteins regulates autophagy in a variety of ways. Recently, ATG8s were demonstrated to conjugate directly to cellular proteins in a process termed "ATG8ylation," which is amplified by mitochondrial damage and antagonized by ATG4 proteases. ATG8s may have an emerging role as small protein modifiers.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202108120
  35. Mol Cancer Ther. 2021 Oct 19. pii: molcanther.0331.2021. [Epub ahead of print]
    DIRAS3: An Imprinted tumor suppressor gene that regulates RAS and PI3K-driven cancer growth, motility, autophagy and tumor dormancy.
    Gamze Bildik, Xiaowen Liang, Margie N Sutton, Robert C Bast, Zhen Lu.
      DIRAS3 is an imprinted tumor suppressor gene that encodes a 26 kD GTPase with 60% amino acid homology to RAS, but with a distinctive 34 amino acid N-terminal extension required to block RAS function. DIRAS3 is maternally imprinted and expressed only from the paternal allele in normal cells. Loss of expression can occur in a single "hit" through multiple mechanisms. Downregulation of DIRAS3 occurs in cancers of the ovary, breast, lung, prostate, colon, brain, and thyroid. Re-expression of DIRAS3 inhibits signaling through PI3 kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT and RAS/MAPK, blocking malignant transformation, inhibiting cancer cell growth and motility and preventing angiogenesis. DIRAS3 is a unique endogenous RAS inhibitor that binds directly to RAS, disrupting RAS dimers and clusters and preventing RAS-induced transformation. DIRAS3 is essential for autophagy and triggers this process through multiple mechanisms. Re-expression of DIRAS3 induces dormancy in a nu/nu mouse xenograft model of ovarian cancer, inhibiting cancer cell growth and angiogenesis. DIRAS3-mediated induction of autophagy facilitates the survival of dormant cancer cells in a nutrient-poor environment. DIRAS3 expression in dormant, drug-resistant autophagic cancer cells can serve as a biomarker and as a target for novel therapy to eliminate the residual disease that remains after conventional therapy.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-21-0331
  36. Nat Commun. 2021 Oct 22. 12(1): 6144
    RIPK1 regulates starvation resistance by modulating aspartate catabolism.
    Xinyu Mei, Yuan Guo, Zhangdan Xie, Yedan Zhong, Xiaofen Wu, Daichao Xu, Ying Li, Nan Liu, Zheng-Jiang Zhu.
      RIPK1 is a crucial regulator of cell death and survival. Ripk1 deficiency promotes mouse survival in the prenatal period while inhibits survival in the early postnatal period without a clear mechanism. Metabolism regulation and autophagy are critical to neonatal survival from severe starvation at birth. However, the mechanism by which RIPK1 regulates starvation resistance and survival remains unclear. Here, we address this question by discovering the metabolic regulatory role of RIPK1. First, metabolomics analysis reveals that Ripk1 deficiency specifically increases aspartate levels in both mouse neonates and mammalian cells under starvation conditions. Increased aspartate in Ripk1-/- cells enhances the TCA  flux and ATP production. The energy imbalance causes defective autophagy induction by inhibiting the AMPK/ULK1 pathway. Transcriptional analyses demonstrate that Ripk1-/- deficiency downregulates gene expression in aspartate catabolism by inactivating SP1. To summarize, this study reveals that RIPK1 serves as a metabolic regulator responsible for starvation resistance.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26423-4
  37. JCI Insight. 2021 Oct 21. pii: e153462. [Epub ahead of print]
    mTORC1 promotes malignant large cell/anaplastic histology and is a targetable vulnerability in SHH-TP53 mutant medulloblastomas.
    Valentina Conti, Manuela Cominelli, Valentina Pieri, Alberto L Gallotti, Ilaria Pagano, Matteo Zanella, Stefania Mazzoleni, Flavia Pivetta, Monica Patanè, Giulia M Scotti, Ignazio S Piras, Bianca Pollo, Andrea Falini, Alessio Zippo, Antonella Castellano, Roberta Maestro, Pietro L Poliani, Rossella Galli.
      Medulloblastoma (MB), one of the most malignant brain tumors of childhood, comprises distinct molecular subgroups, with p53 mutant sonic hedgehog (SHH)-activated MB patients having a very severe outcome that is associated with unfavorable histological large cell/anaplastic (LC/A) features. To identify the molecular underpinnings of this phenotype, we analyzed a large cohort of MBs developing in p53-deficient Ptch+/- SHH mice that, unexpectedly, showed LC/A traits that correlated with mechanistic Target Of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1) hyperactivation. Mechanistically, mTORC1 hyperactivation was mediated by a decrease in the p53-dependent expression of mTORC1 negative regulator Tsc2. Ectopic mTORC1 activation in mouse MB cancer stem cells (CSCs) promoted the in vivo acquisition of LC/A features and increased malignancy; accordingly, mTORC1 inhibition in p53-mutant Ptch+/- SHH MBs and CSC-derived MBs resulted in reduced tumor burden and aggressiveness. Most remarkably, mTORC1 hyperactivation was detected only in p53-mutant SHH MB patients' samples and treatment with rapamycin of a human preclinical model phenocopying this subgroup decreased tumor growth and malignancy. Thus, mTORC1 may act as a specific druggable target for this subset of SHH MB, resulting in the implementation of a stringent risk stratification and in the potentially rapid translation of this precision medicine approach into the clinical setting.
    Keywords:  Brain cancer; Mouse models; Neuroscience; Oncology
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.153462
  38. Sci Rep. 2021 Oct 21. 11(1): 20812
    TCTP protein degradation by targeting mTORC1 and signaling through S6K, Akt, and Plk1 sensitizes lung cancer cells to DNA-damaging drugs.
    Mini Jeong, Mi Hyeon Jeong, Jung Eun Kim, Serin Cho, Kyoung Jin Lee, Serkin Park, Jeongwon Sohn, Yun Gyu Park.
      Translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) is expressed in many tissues, particularly in human tumors. It plays a role in malignant transformation, apoptosis prevention, and DNA damage repair. The signaling mechanisms underlying TCTP regulation in cancer are only partially understood. Here, we investigated the role of mTORC1 in regulating TCTP protein levels, thereby modulating chemosensitivity, in human lung cancer cells and an A549 lung cancer xenograft model. The inhibition of mTORC1, but not mTORC2, induced ubiquitin/proteasome-dependent TCTP degradation without a decrease in the mRNA level. PLK1 activity was required for TCTP ubiquitination and degradation and for its phosphorylation at Ser46 upon mTORC1 inhibition. Akt phosphorylation and activation was indispensable for rapamycin-induced TCTP degradation and PLK1 activation, and depended on S6K inhibition, but not mTORC2 activation. Furthermore, the minimal dose of rapamycin required to induce TCTP proteolysis enhanced the efficacy of DNA-damaging drugs, such as cisplatin and doxorubicin, through the induction of apoptotic cell death in vitro and in vivo. This synergistic cytotoxicity of these drugs was induced irrespective of the functional status of p53. These results demonstrate a new mechanism of TCTP regulation in which the mTORC1/S6K pathway inhibits a novel Akt/PLK1 signaling axis and thereby induces TCTP protein stabilization and confers resistance to DNA-damaging agents. The results of this study suggest a new therapeutic strategy for enhancing chemosensitivity in lung cancers regardless of the functional status of p53.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00247-0
  39. Cells. 2021 Oct 02. pii: 2639. [Epub ahead of print]10(10):
    New Insights into Molecular Mechanisms Mediating Adaptation to Exercise; A Review Focusing on Mitochondrial Biogenesis, Mitochondrial Function, Mitophagy and Autophagy.
    Fiona Louise Roberts, Greg Robert Markby.
      Exercise itself is fundamental for good health, and when practiced regularly confers a myriad of metabolic benefits in a range of tissues. These benefits are mediated by a range of adaptive responses in a coordinated, multi-organ manner. The continued understanding of the molecular mechanisms of action which confer beneficial effects of exercise on the body will identify more specific pathways which can be manipulated by therapeutic intervention in order to prevent or treat various metabolism-associated diseases. This is particularly important as exercise is not an available option to all and so novel methods must be identified to confer the beneficial effects of exercise in a therapeutic manner. This review will focus on key emerging molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy and mitophagy in selected, highly metabolic tissues, describing their regulation and contribution to beneficial adaptations to exercise.
    Keywords:  autophagy; exercise; mitophagy and mitochondrial biogenesis; molecular signaling
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102639
  40. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2021 Sep 27. pii: 982. [Epub ahead of print]14(10):
    Plant Polyphenols for Aging Health: Implication from Their Autophagy Modulating Properties in Age-Associated Diseases.
    James Michael Brimson, Mani Iyer Prasanth, Dicson Sheeja Malar, Premrutai Thitilertdecha, Atul Kabra, Tewin Tencomnao, Anchalee Prasansuklab.
      Polyphenols are a family of naturally occurring organic compounds, majorly present in fruits, vegetables, and cereals, characterised by multiple phenol units, including flavonoids, tannic acid, and ellagitannin. Some well-known polyphenols include resveratrol, quercetin, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, catechin, hesperetin, cyanidin, procyanidin, caffeic acid, and genistein. They can modulate different pathways inside the host, thereby inducing various health benefits. Autophagy is a conserved process that maintains cellular homeostasis by clearing the damaged cellular components and balancing cellular survival and overall health. Polyphenols could maintain autophagic equilibrium, thereby providing various health benefits in mediating neuroprotection and exhibiting anticancer and antidiabetic properties. They could limit brain damage by dismantling misfolded proteins and dysfunctional mitochondria, thereby activating autophagy and eliciting neuroprotection. An anticarcinogenic mechanism is stimulated by modulating canonical and non-canonical signalling pathways. Polyphenols could also decrease insulin resistance and inhibit loss of pancreatic islet β-cell mass and function from inducing antidiabetic activity. Polyphenols are usually included in the diet and may not cause significant side effects that could be effectively used to prevent and treat major diseases and ailments.
    Keywords:  autophagosome; caffeic acid; cancer; curcumin; diabetes; epigallocatechin gallate; luteolin; natural products; neurodegenerative disease; resveratrol
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14100982
  41. Autophagy. 2021 Oct 17. 1-3
    The pro-autophagic protein AMBRA1 coordinates cell cycle progression by regulating CCND (cyclin D) stability.
    Emiliano Maiani, Giacomo Milletti, Francesco Cecconi.
      The scaffold protein AMBRA1 regulates the early steps of autophagosome formation and cell growth, and its deficiency is associated with neurodevelopmental defects and cancer. In a recent study, we show that AMBRA1 is a key factor in the upstream branch of the MYCN-MYC and CDK4-CDK6-dependent regulation of G1/S phase transition. Indeed, in the developing neuroepithelium, in neural stem cells, and in cancer cells, we demonstrate that AMBRA1 regulates the expression of D-type cyclins by controlling both their proteasomal degradation and their MYCN-MYC-mediated transcription. Also, we show that this regulation axis maintains genome integrity during DNA replication, and we identify a possible line of treatment for tumors downregulating AMBRA1 and/or overexpressing CCND1 (cyclin D1), by demonstrating that AMBRA1-depleted cells carry an AMBRA1-loss-specific lethal sensitivity to CHEK1 inhibition. Interestingly, we show that this aspect is specific for AMBRA1 loss, because ATG7 knockdown does not display the same response to CHEK1 inhibitors. Hence, our findings underscore that the AMBRA1-CCND1 pathway represents a novel crucial mechanism of cell cycle regulation, deeply interconnected with genomic stability in development and cancer.
    Keywords:  AMBRA1; cancer; cell cycle regulation; cyclin D1; neurodevelopment; replication stress; synthetic lethality
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2021.1985917
  42. Int J Biol Sci. 2021 ;17(14): 3993-4004
    The imbalance of PGD2-DPs pathway is involved in the type 2 diabetes brain injury by regulating autophagy.
    Yang Yang, Pu Xiang, Qi Chen, Ying Luo, Hong Wang, Huan Li, Lu Yang, Congli Hu, Jiahua Zhang, Yuke Li, Hui Xia, Zhihao Chen, Junqing Yang.
      Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) is the most abundant prostaglandin in the brain, but its involvement in brain damage caused by type 2 diabetes (T2D) has not been reported. In the present study, we found that increased PGD2 content is related to the inhibition of autophagy, which aggravates brain damage in T2D, and may be involved in the imbalanced expression of the corresponding PGD2 receptors DP1 and DP2. We demonstrated that DP2 inhibited autophagy and promotedT2D-induced brain damage by activating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, whereas DP1enhanced autophagy and amelioratedT2D brain damage by activating the cAMP/PKA pathway. In a T2D rat model, DP1 expression was decreased, and DP2 expression was increased; therefore, the imbalance in PGD2-DPs may be involved in T2D brain damage through the regulation of autophagy. However, there have been no reports on whether PKA can directly inhibit mTOR. The PKA catalytic subunit (PKA-C) has three subtypes (α, β and γ), and γ is not expressed in the brain. Subsequently, we suggested that PKA could directly interact with mTOR through PKA-C(α) and PKA-C(β). Our results suggest that the imbalance in PGD2-DPs is related to changes in autophagy levels in T2D brain damage, and PGD2 is involved in T2D brain damage by promoting autophagy via DP1-PKA/mTOR and inhibiting autophagy via DP2-PI3K/AKT/mTOR.
    Keywords:  PGD2; PKA; autophagy; brain injury; type 2 diabetes
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.60149
  43. Cell Rep. 2021 Oct 19. pii: S2211-1247(21)01312-7. [Epub ahead of print]37(3): 109848
    Lysosomal Zn2+ release triggers rapid, mitochondria-mediated, non-apoptotic cell death in metastatic melanoma.
    Wanlu Du, Mingxue Gu, Meiqin Hu, Prateeksunder Pinchi, Wei Chen, Michael Ryan, Timothy Nold, Ahmed Bannaga, Haoxing Xu.
      During tumor progression, lysosome function is often maladaptively upregulated to match the high energy demand required for cancer cell hyper-proliferation and invasion. Here, we report that mucolipin TRP channel 1 (TRPML1), a lysosomal Ca2+ and Zn2+ release channel that regulates multiple aspects of lysosome function, is dramatically upregulated in metastatic melanoma cells compared with normal cells. TRPML-specific synthetic agonists (ML-SAs) are sufficient to induce rapid (within hours) lysosomal Zn2+-dependent necrotic cell death in metastatic melanoma cells while completely sparing normal cells. ML-SA-caused mitochondria swelling and dysfunction lead to cellular ATP depletion. While pharmacological inhibition or genetic silencing of TRPML1 in metastatic melanoma cells prevents such cell death, overexpression of TRPML1 in normal cells confers ML-SA vulnerability. In the melanoma mouse models, ML-SAs exhibit potent in vivo efficacy of suppressing tumor progression. Hence, targeting maladaptively upregulated lysosome machinery can selectively eradicate metastatic tumor cells in vitro and in vivo.
    Keywords:  ML-SAs; ML-SIs; TRPML1; Zn(2+); cell death; lysosome; metastatic melanoma; mitochondria; small molecule
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109848
  44. Biomolecules. 2021 Sep 27. pii: 1412. [Epub ahead of print]11(10):
    Deficiency of the Lysosomal Protein CLN5 Alters Lysosomal Function and Movement.
    Indranil Basak, Rachel A Hansen, Michael E Ward, Stephanie M Hughes.
      Batten disease is a devastating, childhood, rare neurodegenerative disease characterised by the rapid deterioration of cognition and movement, leading to death within ten to thirty years of age. One of the thirteen Batten disease forms, CLN5 Batten disease, is caused by mutations in the CLN5 gene, leading to motor deficits, mental deterioration, cognitive impairment, visual impairment, and epileptic seizures in children. A characteristic pathology in CLN5 Batten disease is the defects in lysosomes, leading to neuronal dysfunction. In this study, we aimed to investigate the lysosomal changes in CLN5-deficient human neurons. We used an induced pluripotent stem cell system, which generates pure human cortical-like glutamatergic neurons. Using CRISPRi, we inhibited the expression of CLN5 in human neurons. The CLN5-deficient human neurons showed reduced acidic organelles and reduced lysosomal enzyme activity measured by microscopy and flow cytometry. Furthermore, the CLN5-deficient human neurons also showed impaired lysosomal movement-a phenotype that has never been reported in CLN5 Batten disease. Lysosomal trafficking is key to maintain local degradation of cellular wastes, especially in long neuronal projections, and our results from the human neuronal model present a key finding to understand the underlying lysosomal pathology in neurodegenerative diseases.
    Keywords:  Batten disease; CLN5; CRISPR; cathepsin B; iPSC-derived human neurons; lysosome acidity; lysosome enzyme activity; lysosome function; lysosome movement
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11101412
  45. Front Physiol. 2021 ;12 732308
    Ulk1, Not Ulk2, Is Required for Exercise Training-Induced Improvement of Insulin Response in Skeletal Muscle.
    Joshua C Drake, Rebecca J Wilson, Di Cui, Yuntian Guan, Mondira Kundu, Mei Zhang, Zhen Yan.
      Unc51 like autophagy activating kinase 1 (Ulk1), the primary autophagy regulator, has been linked to metabolic adaptation in skeletal muscle to exercise training. Here we compared the roles of Ulk1 and homologous Ulk2 in skeletal muscle insulin action following exercise training to gain more mechanistic insights. Inducible, skeletal muscle-specific Ulk1 knock-out (Ulk1-iMKO) mice and global Ulk2 knock-out (Ulk2-/-) mice were subjected to voluntary wheel running for 6 weeks followed by assessment of exercise capacity, glucose tolerance, and insulin signaling in skeletal muscle after a bolus injection of insulin. Both Ulk1-iMKO and Ulk2-/- mice had improved endurance exercise capacity post-exercise. Ulk1-iMKO did not improve glucose clearance during glucose tolerance test, while Ulk2-/- had only marginal improvement. However, exercise training-induced improvement of insulin action in skeletal muscle, indicated by Akt-S473 phosphorylation, was only impaired in Ulk1-iMKO. These data suggest that Ulk1, but not Ulk2, is required for exercise training-induced improvement of insulin action in skeletal muscle, implicating crosstalk between catabolic and anabolic signaling as integral to metabolic adaptation to energetic stress.
    Keywords:  Unc51 like autophagy activating kinase; autophagy; exercise; insulin signaling; skeletal muscle
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.732308
  46. Vet Res Commun. 2021 Oct 20.
    Characterisation of autophagy disruption in the ileum of pigs infected with Lawsonia intracellularis.
    Hamish A Salvesen, Fiona A Sargison, Alan L Archibald, Tahar Ait-Ali.
      Lawsonia intracellularis is the aetiological agent of proliferative enteropathy, an enteric disease endemic in swine. Survival in its intracellular niche of the ileum epithelial lining requires the capacity to subvert, repress or exploit the host immune response to create an environment conducive to bacterial propagation. To better understand how L. intracellularis survives in its intracellular niche, we have performed an investigation into the dynamic relationship between infection and the host autophagy response by immunohistochemistry in experimentally infected porcine ileum samples.Beclin1, a protein required early in the autophagy pathway was observed to be distributed with a basal to apical concentration gradient in the crypts of healthy piglets, whilst infected piglets were observed to have no gradient of distribution and an increase in the presence of Beclin1 in crypts with histological characteristics of L. intracellularis residence. Detecting microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) is used as a method for monitoring autophagy progression as it associates with mature autophagosomes. For LC3 there was no notable change in signal intensity between crypts with characteristic L. intracellularis infection and healthy crypts of uninfected pigs. Finally, as p62 is degraded with the internal substrate of an autophagosome it was used to measure autophagic flux. There was no observed reduction or redistribution of p62.These preliminary results of the autophagy response in the ileum suggest that L. intracellularis affects autophagy. This disruption to host ileum homeostasis may provide a mechanism that assists in bacterial propagation and contributes to pathogenesis.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; Intestinal homeostasis; Lawsonia intracellularis; Pig; Proliferative enteropathy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-021-09847-7
  47. Genes (Basel). 2021 Oct 07. pii: 1581. [Epub ahead of print]12(10):
    Cell Death and Survival Pathways Involving ATM Protein Kinase.
    Toshihiko Aki, Koichi Uemura.
      Cell death is the ultimate form of cellular dysfunction, and is induced by a wide range of stresses including genotoxic stresses. During genotoxic stress, two opposite cellular reactions, cellular protection through DNA repair and elimination of damaged cells by the induction of cell death, can occur in both separate and simultaneous manners. ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) kinase (hereafter referred to as ATM) is a protein kinase that plays central roles in the induction of cell death during genotoxic stresses. It has long been considered that ATM mediates DNA damage-induced cell death through inducing apoptosis. However, recent research progress in cell death modality is now revealing ATM-dependent cell death pathways that consist of not only apoptosis but also necroptosis, ferroptosis, and dysfunction of autophagy, a cellular survival mechanism. In this short review, we intend to provide a brief outline of cell death mechanisms in which ATM is involved, with emphasis on pathways other than apoptosis.
    Keywords:  ATM; apoptosis; autophagy; ferroptosis; necroptosis
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/genes12101581
  48. J Nutr Biochem. 2021 Oct 13. pii: S0955-2863(21)00302-8. [Epub ahead of print] 108882
    Lipophagy mediated glucose-induced changes of lipid deposition and metabolism via ROS dependent AKT-Beclin1 activation.
    Li-Xiang Wu, Yi-Chuang Xu, Christer Hogstrand, Tao Zhao, Kun Wu, Yi-Huan Xu, Wei Liu, Zhi Luo.
      High dietary carbohydrate intake leads to lipid accumulation in the intestinal tract, but the molecular mechanism remains unknown. In the present study, using yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) as a model, we found that (1) high carbohydrate diets (HCD) and high glucose (HG) increased lipid deposition, up-regulated lipogenesis and fatty acid β-oxidation, activated autophagy and induced oxidative stress in the intestinal tissues and intestinal epithelial cells (IECs); (2) lipophagy alleviated HG-induced lipid accumulation via the up-regulation of fatty acid β-oxidation; (3) Akt interacted directly with Beclin1; (4) HG suppressed Akt1 phosphorylation, downregulated Akt1-mediated phosphorylation of Beclin1, activated lipophagy and alleviated the increment of TG deposition induced by HG with S87 and S292 being the key phosphorylation residues of Beclin1 in response to HG; (5) ROS generation mediated HG-induced activation of lipophagy and HG-induced suppression of AKT phosphorylation, activated AMPK and alleviated HG-induced increase of TG deposition. Our study provides mechanistic evidence that high carbohydrate- and glucose-induced lipophagy in intestine and IECs is associated with ROS-AKT-Beclin1-dependent activation of autophagy, which alleviates glucose-induced lipid accumulation. Our findings are important since the regulation of autophagy can be used as potential molecular targets for the prevention and treatment of lipotoxicity in the intestine of vertebrates, including humans.
    Keywords:  AKT, protein kinase B; AO, acridine orange; CHO, carbohydrate; CQ, chloroquine; ChREBP, carbohydrate response element-binding protein; DCFH2-DA, 2′ 7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; Dietary carbohydrate; FFA, free fatty acids; G6PD, glucose 6-phospate dehydrogenase; HCD, high carbohydrate diet; HG, high glucose; ICD, intermediate carbohydrate diet; ICDH, isocitrate dehydrogenase; LCD, low carbohydrate diet; LD, lipid droplet; Lipid accumulation; Lipid metabolism; Lipoophagy; MAP1LC3B, microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B; MDA, malondialdehyde; MDC, monodansylcadaverine; ME, malic enzyme; Molecular mechanism, Abbreviations: PGD, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase; NAC, N-acetyl-L-cysteine; NEFA, nonesterified fatty acid; OD, optical density; ORO, oil red O; PVDF, polyvinylidene difluoride; ROS, reactive oxygen species; S.E.M, standard error of the mean; SOD, superoxide dismutase; SREBP, sterol regulatory element binding proteins; TCA, tricarboxylic acid; TG, triglyceride; acacα, acetyl-CoA carboxylase α; atg, autophagy-related gene; cpt-1, carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1; eif2α, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α; fasn, fatty acid synthase; lamp, lysosomal associated membrane protein
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2021.108882
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