bims-camemi Biomed News
on Mitochondrial metabolism in cancer
Issue of 2020–06–07
forty-five papers selected by
Christian Frezza, , University of Cambridge, MRC Cancer Unit
  1. Defective NADPH production in mitochondrial disease complex I causes inflammation and cell death.
  2. Oncometabolites suppress DNA repair by disrupting local chromatin signalling.
  3. Structure and mechanism of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter holocomplex.
  4. Epigenetic Reprogramming of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Deregulates Glucose Metabolism and Facilitates Progression of Breast Cancer.
  5. PINK1 phosphorylates Drp1S616 to regulate mitophagy-independent mitochondrial dynamics.
  6. Endothelial Lactate Controls Muscle Regeneration from Ischemia by Inducing M2-like Macrophage Polarization.
  7. Repression of LKB1 by miR-17∼92 Sensitizes MYC-Dependent Lymphoma to Biguanide Treatment.
  8. ERK2 Phosphorylates PFAS to Mediate Posttranslational Control of De Novo Purine Synthesis.
  9. New perspectives on the role of Drp1 isoforms in regulating mitochondrial pathophysiology.
  10. The biology of Lonp1: More than a mitochondrial protease.
  11. Dysfunctional oxidative phosphorylation shunts branched-chain amino acid catabolism onto lipogenesis in skeletal muscle.
  12. Links between cancer metabolism and cisplatin resistance.
  13. Mitochondrial ion channels as targets for cardioprotection.
  14. Metabolic Fitness of T Cells in Autoimmune Disease.
  15. Inferring Active Metabolic Pathways from Proteomics and Essentiality Data.
  16. Deletion of Fructokinase in the Liver or in the Intestine Reveals Differential Effects on Sugar-Induced Metabolic Dysfunction.
  17. Nucleotide depletion reveals the impaired ribosome biogenesis checkpoint as a barrier against DNA damage.
  18. Pharmacological modulation of mitochondrial calcium uniporter controls lung inflammation in cystic fibrosis.
  19. Mitochondrial DNA methylation misleads global DNA methylation detected by antibody-based methods.
  20. Of Mice and Men: NAD+ Boosting with Niacin Provides Hope for Mitochondrial Myopathy Patients.
  21. Constitutive Expression of the Immunosuppressive Tryptophan Dioxygenase TDO2 in Glioblastoma Is Driven by the Transcription Factor C/EBPβ.
  22. Independent regulation of age associated fat accumulation and longevity.
  23. In vivo modeling of metastatic human high-grade serous ovarian cancer in mice.
  24. Emerging roles of autophagy in hepatic tumorigenesis and therapeutic strategies in glycogen storage disease type Ia: a review.
  25. Metabolic characteristics of CD8+ T cell subsets in young and aged individuals are not predictive of functionality.
  26. Proline Metabolism in Tumor Growth and Metastatic Progression.
  27. Oligomycin-induced proton uncoupling.
  28. Scaf1 promotes respiratory supercomplexes and metabolic efficiency in zebrafish.
  29. Circadian Regulation of Adult Stem Cell Homeostasis and Aging.
  30. Creatine metabolism: energy homeostasis, immunity and cancer biology.
  31. Metabolic profile of leukemia cells influences treatment efficacy of L-asparaginase.
  32. Valuing Diversity.
  33. Caveolae Control Contractile Tension for Epithelia to Eliminate Tumor Cells.
  34. A SAM-I riboswitch with the ability to sense and respond to uncharged initiator tRNA.
  35. A Single Intravenous Injection of AAV-PHP.B-hNDUFS4 Ameliorates the Phenotype of Ndufs4 -/- Mice.
  36. Acetyl-CoA Derived from Hepatic Peroxisomal β-Oxidation Inhibits Autophagy and Promotes Steatosis via mTORC1 Activation.
  37. MYC Drives Temporal Evolution of Small Cell Lung Cancer Subtypes by Reprogramming Neuroendocrine Fate.
  38. Quantification of cristae architecture reveals time-dependent characteristics of individual mitochondria.
  39. Break on Through: Golgi-Derived Vesicles Aid in Mitochondrial Fission.
  40. An Isoform-Selective Modulator of Cryptochrome 1 Regulates Circadian Rhythms in Mammals.
  41. Parkin ubiquitinates phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase to suppress serine synthesis and tumor progression.
  42. Lysosome activity is modulated by multiple longevity pathways and is important for lifespan extension in C. elegans.
  43. Defined p16High Senescent Cell Types Are Indispensable for Mouse Healthspan.
  44. NAD metabolism in aging and cancer.
  45. The Golgi: Keeping It Unapologetically Basic.
  1. Nat Commun. 2020 Jun 01. 11(1): 2714
    Defective NADPH production in mitochondrial disease complex I causes inflammation and cell death.
    Eduardo Balsa, Elizabeth A Perry, Christopher F Bennett, Mark Jedrychowski, Steven P Gygi, John G Doench, Pere Puigserver.
      Electron transport chain (ETC) defects occurring from mitochondrial disease mutations compromise ATP synthesis and render cells vulnerable to nutrient and oxidative stress conditions. This bioenergetic failure is thought to underlie pathologies associated with mitochondrial diseases. However, the precise metabolic processes resulting from a defective mitochondrial ETC that compromise cell viability under stress conditions are not entirely understood. We design a whole genome gain-of-function CRISPR activation screen using human mitochondrial disease complex I (CI) mutant cells to identify genes whose increased function rescue glucose restriction-induced cell death. The top hit of the screen is the cytosolic Malic Enzyme (ME1), that is sufficient to enable survival and proliferation of CI mutant cells under nutrient stress conditions. Unexpectedly, this metabolic rescue is independent of increased ATP synthesis through glycolysis or oxidative phosphorylation, but dependent on ME1-produced NADPH and glutathione (GSH). Survival upon nutrient stress or pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) inhibition depends on compensatory NADPH production through the mitochondrial one-carbon metabolism that is severely compromised in CI mutant cells. Importantly, this defective CI-dependent decrease in mitochondrial NADPH production pathway or genetic ablation of SHMT2 causes strong increases in inflammatory cytokine signatures associated with redox dependent induction of ASK1 and activation of stress kinases p38 and JNK. These studies find that a major defect of CI deficiencies is decreased mitochondrial one-carbon NADPH production that is associated with increased inflammation and cell death.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16423-1
  2. Nature. 2020 Jun 03.
    Oncometabolites suppress DNA repair by disrupting local chromatin signalling.
    Parker L Sulkowski, Sebastian Oeck, Jonathan Dow, Nicholas G Economos, Lily Mirfakhraie, Yanfeng Liu, Katelyn Noronha, Xun Bao, Jing Li, Brian M Shuch, Megan C King, Ranjit S Bindra, Peter M Glazer.
      Deregulation of metabolism and disruption of genome integrity are hallmarks of cancer1. Increased levels of the metabolites 2-hydroxyglutarate, succinate and fumarate occur in human malignancies owing to somatic mutations in the isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 or -2 (IDH1 or IDH2) genes, or germline mutations in the fumarate hydratase (FH) and succinate dehydrogenase genes (SDHA, SDHB, SDHC and SDHD), respectively2-4. Recent work has made an unexpected connection between these metabolites and DNA repair by showing that they suppress the pathway of homology-dependent repair (HDR)5,6 and confer an exquisite sensitivity to inhibitors of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) that are being tested in clinical trials. However, the mechanism by which these oncometabolites inhibit HDR remains poorly understood. Here we determine the pathway by which these metabolites disrupt DNA repair. We show that oncometabolite-induced inhibition of the lysine demethylase KDM4B results in aberrant hypermethylation of histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9) at loci surrounding DNA breaks, masking a local H3K9 trimethylation signal that is essential for the proper execution of HDR. Consequently, recruitment of TIP60 and ATM, two key proximal HDR factors, is substantially impaired at DNA breaks, with reduced end resection and diminished recruitment of downstream repair factors. These findings provide a mechanistic basis for oncometabolite-induced HDR suppression and may guide effective strategies to exploit these defects for therapeutic gain.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2363-0
  3. Nature. 2020 Jun;582(7810): 129-133
    Structure and mechanism of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter holocomplex.
    Minrui Fan, Jinru Zhang, Chen-Wei Tsai, Benjamin J Orlando, Madison Rodriguez, Yan Xu, Maofu Liao, Ming-Feng Tsai, Liang Feng.
      Mitochondria take up Ca2+ through the mitochondrial calcium uniporter complex to regulate energy production, cytosolic Ca2+ signalling and cell death1,2. In mammals, the uniporter complex (uniplex) contains four core components: the pore-forming MCU protein, the gatekeepers MICU1 and MICU2, and an auxiliary subunit, EMRE, essential for Ca2+ transport3-8. To prevent detrimental Ca2+ overload, the activity of MCU must be tightly regulated by MICUs, which sense changes in cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations to switch MCU on and off9,10. Here we report cryo-electron microscopic structures of the human mitochondrial calcium uniporter holocomplex in inhibited and Ca2+-activated states. These structures define the architecture of this multicomponent Ca2+-uptake machinery and reveal the gating mechanism by which MICUs control uniporter activity. Our work provides a framework for understanding regulated Ca2+ uptake in mitochondria, and could suggest ways of modulating uniporter activity to treat diseases related to mitochondrial Ca2+ overload.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2309-6
  4. Cell Rep. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S2211-1247(20)30671-9. [Epub ahead of print]31(9): 107701
    Epigenetic Reprogramming of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Deregulates Glucose Metabolism and Facilitates Progression of Breast Cancer.
    Lisa M Becker, Joyce T O'Connell, Annie P Vo, Margo P Cain, Desiree Tampe, Lauren Bizarro, Hikaru Sugimoto, Anna K McGow, John M Asara, Sara Lovisa, Kathleen M McAndrews, Rafal Zielinski, Philip L Lorenzi, Michael Zeisberg, Sughra Raza, Valerie S LeBleu, Raghu Kalluri.
      The mechanistic contributions of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in breast cancer progression remain to be fully understood. While altered glucose metabolism in CAFs could fuel cancer cells, how such metabolic reprogramming emerges and is sustained needs further investigation. Studying fibroblasts isolated from patients with benign breast tissues and breast cancer, in conjunction with multiple animal models, we demonstrate that CAFs exhibit a metabolic shift toward lactate and pyruvate production and fuel biosynthetic pathways of cancer cells. The depletion or suppression of the lactate production of CAFs alter the tumor metabolic profile and impede tumor growth. The glycolytic phenotype of the CAFs is in part sustained through epigenetic reprogramming of HIF-1α and glycolytic enzymes. Hypoxia induces epigenetic reprogramming of normal fibroblasts, resulting in a pro-glycolytic, CAF-like transcriptome. Our findings suggest that the glucose metabolism of CAFs evolves during tumor progression, and their breast cancer-promoting phenotype is partly mediated by oxygen-dependent epigenetic modifications.
    Keywords:  breast cancer; cancer-associated fibroblasts; epigenetic alterations; hypoxia; metabolism
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107701
  5. EMBO Rep. 2020 Jun 02. e48686
    PINK1 phosphorylates Drp1S616 to regulate mitophagy-independent mitochondrial dynamics.
    Hailong Han, Jieqiong Tan, Ruoxi Wang, Huida Wan, Yaohui He, Xinxiang Yan, Jifeng Guo, Qingtao Gao, Jie Li, Shuai Shang, Fang Chen, Runyi Tian, Wen Liu, Lujian Liao, Beisha Tang, Zhuohua Zhang.
      Impairment of PINK1/parkin-mediated mitophagy is currently proposed to be the molecular basis of mitochondrial abnormality in Parkinson's disease (PD). We here demonstrate that PINK1 directly phosphorylates Drp1 on S616. Drp1S616 phosphorylation is significantly reduced in cells and mouse tissues deficient for PINK1, but unaffected by parkin inactivation. PINK1-mediated mitochondrial fission is Drp1S616 phosphorylation dependent. Overexpression of either wild-type Drp1 or of the phosphomimetic mutant Drp1S616D , but not a dephosphorylation-mimic mutant Drp1S616A , rescues PINK1 deficiency-associated phenotypes in Drosophila. Moreover, Drp1 restores PINK1-dependent mitochondrial fission in ATG5-null cells and ATG7-null Drosophila. Reduced Drp1S616 phosphorylation is detected in fibroblasts derived from 4 PD patients harboring PINK1 mutations and in 4 out of 7 sporadic PD cases. Taken together, we have identified Drp1 as a substrate of PINK1 and a novel mechanism how PINK1 regulates mitochondrial fission independent of parkin and autophagy. Our results further link impaired PINK1-mediated Drp1S616 phosphorylation with the pathogenesis of both familial and sporadic PD.
    Keywords:  Parkinson’s disease; autophagy; human dermal fibroblasts; mitochondrial dynamics; parkin
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.201948686
  6. Cell Metab. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S1550-4131(20)30243-6. [Epub ahead of print]31(6): 1136-1153.e7
    Endothelial Lactate Controls Muscle Regeneration from Ischemia by Inducing M2-like Macrophage Polarization.
    Jing Zhang, Jonathan Muri, Gillian Fitzgerald, Tatiane Gorski, Roberto Gianni-Barrera, Evi Masschelein, Gommaar D'Hulst, Paola Gilardoni, Guillermo Turiel, Zheng Fan, TongTong Wang, Mélanie Planque, Peter Carmeliet, Luc Pellerin, Christian Wolfrum, Sarah-Maria Fendt, Andrea Banfi, Christian Stockmann, Inés Soro-Arnáiz, Manfred Kopf, Katrien De Bock.
      Endothelial cell (EC)-derived signals contribute to organ regeneration, but angiocrine metabolic communication is not described. We found that EC-specific loss of the glycolytic regulator pfkfb3 reduced ischemic hindlimb revascularization and impaired muscle regeneration. This was caused by the reduced ability of macrophages to adopt a proangiogenic and proregenerative M2-like phenotype. Mechanistically, loss of pfkfb3 reduced lactate secretion by ECs and lowered lactate levels in the ischemic muscle. Addition of lactate to pfkfb3-deficient ECs restored M2-like polarization in an MCT1-dependent fashion. Lactate shuttling by ECs enabled macrophages to promote proliferation and fusion of muscle progenitors. Moreover, VEGF production by lactate-polarized macrophages was increased, resulting in a positive feedback loop that further stimulated angiogenesis. Finally, increasing lactate levels during ischemia rescued macrophage polarization and improved muscle reperfusion and regeneration, whereas macrophage-specific mct1 deletion prevented M2-like polarization. In summary, ECs exploit glycolysis for angiocrine lactate shuttling to steer muscle regeneration from ischemia.
    Keywords:  MCT1; angiogenesis; angriocrine signals; endothelial cells; ischemia; lactate; macrophage polarization; metabolism; muscle regeneration
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.05.004
  7. Cell Rep Med. 2020 May 19. 1(2): 100014
    Repression of LKB1 by miR-17∼92 Sensitizes MYC-Dependent Lymphoma to Biguanide Treatment.
    Said Izreig, Alexandra Gariepy, Irem Kaymak, Hannah R Bridges, Ariel O Donayo, Gaëlle Bridon, Lisa M DeCamp, Susan M Kitchen-Goosen, Daina Avizonis, Ryan D Sheldon, Rob C Laister, Mark D Minden, Nathalie A Johnson, Thomas F Duchaine, Marc S Rudoltz, Sanghee Yoo, Michael N Pollak, Kelsey S Williams, Russell G Jones.
      Cancer cells display metabolic plasticity to survive stresses in the tumor microenvironment. Cellular adaptation to energetic stress is coordinated in part by signaling through the liver kinase B1 (LKB1)-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. Here, we demonstrate that miRNA-mediated silencing of LKB1 confers sensitivity of lymphoma cells to mitochondrial inhibition by biguanides. Using both classic (phenformin) and newly developed (IM156) biguanides, we demonstrate that elevated miR-17∼92 expression in Myc + lymphoma cells promotes increased apoptosis to biguanide treatment in vitro and in vivo. This effect is driven by the miR-17-dependent silencing of LKB1, which reduces AMPK activation in response to complex I inhibition. Mechanistically, biguanide treatment induces metabolic stress in Myc + lymphoma cells by inhibiting TCA cycle metabolism and mitochondrial respiration, exposing metabolic vulnerability. Finally, we demonstrate a direct correlation between miR-17∼92 expression and biguanide sensitivity in human cancer cells. Our results identify miR-17∼92 expression as a potential biomarker for biguanide sensitivity in malignancies.
    Keywords:  AMPK; LKB1; Myc; OXPHOS inhibitor; biguanide; energy-sensing; lymphoma; metabolic vulnerabilities; microRNA
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100014
  8. Mol Cell. 2020 May 28. pii: S1097-2765(20)30302-6. [Epub ahead of print]
    ERK2 Phosphorylates PFAS to Mediate Posttranslational Control of De Novo Purine Synthesis.
    Eunus S Ali, Umakant Sahu, Elodie Villa, Brendan P O'Hara, Peng Gao, Cynthia Beaudet, Antony W Wood, John M Asara, Issam Ben-Sahra.
      The RAS-ERK/MAPK (RAS-extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathway integrates growth-promoting signals to stimulate cell growth and proliferation, at least in part, through alterations in metabolic gene expression. However, examples of direct and rapid regulation of the metabolic pathways by the RAS-ERK pathway remain elusive. We find that physiological and oncogenic ERK signaling activation leads to acute metabolic flux stimulation through the de novo purine synthesis pathway, thereby increasing building block availability for RNA and DNA synthesis, which is required for cell growth and proliferation. We demonstrate that ERK2, but not ERK1, phosphorylates the purine synthesis enzyme PFAS (phosphoribosylformylglycinamidine synthase) at T619 in cells to stimulate de novo purine synthesis. The expression of nonphosphorylatable PFAS (T619A) decreases purine synthesis, RAS-dependent cancer cell-colony formation, and tumor growth. Thus, ERK2-mediated PFAS phosphorylation facilitates the increase in nucleic acid synthesis required for anabolic cell growth and proliferation.
    Keywords:  ERK; FGAM; MAPK; PFAS; RAS; cancer; nucleotide synthesis; posttranslational modification; purine metabolism; tumor growth
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2020.05.001
  9. Pharmacol Ther. 2020 May 28. pii: S0163-7258(20)30122-4. [Epub ahead of print] 107594
    New perspectives on the role of Drp1 isoforms in regulating mitochondrial pathophysiology.
    Ayeshah A Rosdah, William J Smiles, Jonathan S Oakhill, John W Scott, Christopher G Langendorf, Lea M D Delbridge, Jessica K Holien, Shiang Y Lim.
      Mitochondria are dynamic organelles constantly undergoing fusion and fission. A concerted balance between the process of mitochondrial fusion and fission is required to maintain cellular health under different physiological conditions. Mutation and dysregulation of Drp1, the major driver of mitochondrial fission, has been associated with various neurological, oncological and cardiovascular disorders. Moreover, when subjected to pathological insults, mitochondria often undergo excessive fission, generating fragmented and dysfunctional mitochondria leading to cell death. Therefore, manipulating mitochondrial fission by targeting Drp1 has been an appealing therapeutic approach for cytoprotection. However, studies have been inconsistent. Studies employing Drp1 constructs representing alternate Drp1 isoforms, have demonstrated differing impacts of these isoforms on mitochondrial fission and cell death. Furthermore, there are distinct expression patterns of Drp1 isoforms in different tissues, suggesting idiosyncratic engagement in specific cellular functions. In this review, we will discuss these inherent variations among human Drp1 isoforms and how they could affect Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission and cell death.
    Keywords:  Drp1; cell survival; isoforms; mitochondrial function; mitochondrial morphology
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107594
  10. Int Rev Cell Mol Biol. 2020 ;pii: S1937-6448(20)30010-1. [Epub ahead of print]354 1-61
    The biology of Lonp1: More than a mitochondrial protease.
    Lara Gibellini, Anna De Gaetano, Mauro Mandrioli, Elia Van Tongeren, Carlo Augusto Bortolotti, Andrea Cossarizza, Marcello Pinti.
      Initially discovered as a protease responsible for degradation of misfolded or damaged proteins, the mitochondrial Lon protease (Lonp1) turned out to be a multifaceted enzyme, that displays at least three different functions (proteolysis, chaperone activity, binding of mtDNA) and that finely regulates several cellular processes, within and without mitochondria. Indeed, LONP1 in humans is ubiquitously expressed, and is involved in regulation of response to oxidative stress and, heat shock, in the maintenance of mtDNA, in the regulation of mitophagy. Furthermore, its proteolytic activity can regulate several biochemical pathways occurring totally or partially within mitochondria, such as TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, steroid and heme biosynthesis and glutamine production. Because of these multiple activities, Lon protease is highly conserved throughout evolution, and mutations occurring in its gene determines severe diseases in humans, including a rare syndrome characterized by Cerebral, Ocular, Dental, Auricular and Skeletal anomalies (CODAS). Finally, alterations of LONP1 regulation in humans can favor tumor progression and aggressiveness, further highlighting the crucial role of this enzyme in mitochondrial and cellular homeostasis.
    Keywords:  CODAS; Colon cancer; LONP1; Lon protease; Mitochondria; Proteotoxic stress; mtDNA
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.ircmb.2020.02.005
  11. EMBO J. 2020 Jun 03. e103812
    Dysfunctional oxidative phosphorylation shunts branched-chain amino acid catabolism onto lipogenesis in skeletal muscle.
    Cristina Sánchez-González, Cristina Nuevo-Tapioles, Juan Cruz Herrero Martín, Marta P Pereira, Sandra Serrano Sanz, Ana Ramírez de Molina, José M Cuezva, Laura Formentini.
      It is controversial whether mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscle is the cause or consequence of metabolic disorders. Herein, we demonstrate that in vivo inhibition of mitochondrial ATP synthase in muscle alters whole-body lipid homeostasis. Mice with restrained mitochondrial ATP synthase activity presented intrafiber lipid droplets, dysregulation of acyl-glycerides, and higher visceral adipose tissue deposits, poising these animals to insulin resistance. This mitochondrial energy crisis increases lactate production, prevents fatty acid β-oxidation, and forces the catabolism of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) to provide acetyl-CoA for de novo lipid synthesis. In turn, muscle accumulation of acetyl-CoA leads to acetylation-dependent inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory complex II enhancing oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction which results in augmented ROS production. By screening 702 FDA-approved drugs, we identified edaravone as a potent mitochondrial antioxidant and enhancer. Edaravone administration restored ROS and lipid homeostasis in skeletal muscle and reinstated insulin sensitivity. Our results suggest that muscular mitochondrial perturbations are causative of metabolic disorders and that edaravone is a potential treatment for these diseases.
    Keywords:  ATP synthase; Acetyl-CoA; edaravone; insulin resistance; mitochondria
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.2019103812
  12. Int Rev Cell Mol Biol. 2020 ;pii: S1937-6448(20)30005-8. [Epub ahead of print]354 107-164
    Links between cancer metabolism and cisplatin resistance.
    Veronica Cocetta, Eugenio Ragazzi, Monica Montopoli.
      Cisplatin is one of the most potent and widely used chemotherapeutic agent in the treatment of several solid tumors, despite the high toxicity and the frequent relapse of patients due to the onset of drug resistance. Resistance to chemotherapeutic agents, either intrinsic or acquired, is currently one of the major problems in oncology. Thus, understanding the biology of chemoresistance is fundamental in order to overcome this challenge and to improve the survival rate of patients. Studies over the last 30 decades have underlined how resistance is a multifactorial phenomenon not yet completely understood. Recently, tumor metabolism has gained a lot of interest in the context of chemoresistance; accumulating evidence suggests that the rearrangements of the principal metabolic pathways within cells, contributes to the sensitivity of tumor to the drug treatment. In this review, the principal metabolic alterations associated with cisplatin resistance are highlighted. Improving the knowledge of the influence of metabolism on cisplatin response is fundamental to identify new possible metabolic targets useful for combinatory treatments, in order to overcome cisplatin resistance.
    Keywords:  Cancer metabolism; Cisplatin; Drug resistance; Glutamine; Glycolysis; Lipid metabolism; Metabolic reprogramming; Metabolic targets; Mitochondria; PPP
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.ircmb.2020.01.005
  13. J Cell Mol Med. 2020 Jun 03.
    Mitochondrial ion channels as targets for cardioprotection.
    Derek J Hausenloy, Rainer Schulz, Henrique Girao, Brenda R Kwak, Diego De Stefani, Rosario Rizzuto, Paolo Bernardi, Fabio Di Lisa.
      Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and the heart failure (HF) that often result remain the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. As such, new therapeutic targets need to be discovered to protect the myocardium against acute ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in order to reduce myocardial infarct (MI) size, preserve left ventricular function and prevent the onset of HF. Mitochondrial dysfunction during acute I/R injury is a critical determinant of cell death following AMI, and therefore, ion channels in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which are known to influence cell death and survival, provide potential therapeutic targets for cardioprotection. In this article, we review the role of mitochondrial ion channels, which are known to modulate susceptibility to acute myocardial I/R injury, and we explore their potential roles as therapeutic targets for reducing MI size and preventing HF following AMI.
    Keywords:  Mitochondria; acute ischaemia/reperfusion injury; cardioprotection; mitochondrial permeability transition pore
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.15341
  14. Immunometabolism. 2020 ;pii: e200017. [Epub ahead of print]2(2):
    Metabolic Fitness of T Cells in Autoimmune Disease.
    Bowen Wu, Jörg J Goronzy, Cornelia M Weyand.
      Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are relatively common autoimmune diseases, often considered prototypic examples for how protective immunity switches to destructive immunity. The autoantigens recognized in RA and SLE are distinct, clinical manifestations are partially overlapping. A shared feature is the propensity of the adaptive immune system to respond inappropriately, with T cell hyper-responsiveness a pinnacle pathogenic defect. Upon antigen recognition, T cells mobilize a multi-pranged metabolic program, enabling them to massively expand and turn into highly mobile effector cells. Current evidence supports that T cells from patients with RA or SLE adopt metabolic programs different from healthy T cells, in line with the concept that autoimmune effector functions rely on specified pathways of energy sensing, energy generation and energy utilization. Due to misrouting of the energy sensor AMPK, RA T cells have a defect in balancing catabolic and anabolic processes and deviate towards a cell-building program. They supply biosynthetic precursors by shunting glucose away from glycolytic breakdown towards the pentose phosphate pathway and upregulate lipogenesis, enabling cellular motility and tissue invasiveness. Conversely, T cells from SLE patients are committed to high glycolytic flux, overusing the mitochondrial machinery and imposing oxidative stress. Typically, disease-relevant effector functions in SLE are associated with inappropriate activation of the key metabolic regulator mTORC1. Taken together, disease-specific metabolic signatures in RA and SLE represent vulnerabilities that are therapeutically targetable to suppress pathogenic immune responses.
    Keywords:  T cells; glucose; glycolysis; lipid droplets; lipogenesis; mitochondria; oxygen consumption; rheumatoid arthritis; systemic lupus erythematosus
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.20900/immunometab20200017
  15. Cell Rep. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S2211-1247(20)30699-9. [Epub ahead of print]31(9): 107722
    Inferring Active Metabolic Pathways from Proteomics and Essentiality Data.
    Ariadna Montero-Blay, Carlos Piñero-Lambea, Samuel Miravet-Verde, Maria Lluch-Senar, Luis Serrano.
      Here, we propose an approach to identify active metabolic pathways by integrating gene essentiality analysis and protein abundance. We use two bacterial species (Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma agalactiae) that share a high gene content similarity yet show significant metabolic differences. First, we build detailed metabolic maps of their carbon metabolism, the most striking difference being the absence of two key enzymes for glucose metabolism in M. agalactiae. We then determine carbon sources that allow growth in M. agalactiae, and we introduce glucose-dependent growth to show the functionality of its remaining glycolytic enzymes. By analyzing gene essentiality and performing quantitative proteomics, we can predict the active metabolic pathways connected to carbon metabolism and show significant differences in use and direction of key pathways despite sharing the large majority of genes. Gene essentiality combined with quantitative proteomics and metabolic maps can be used to determine activity and directionality of metabolic pathways.
    Keywords:  metabolism, bacteria, transposon, active pathways, mycoplasma, proteomics, essentiality
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107722
  16. Cell Metab. 2020 May 28. pii: S1550-4131(20)30251-5. [Epub ahead of print]
    Deletion of Fructokinase in the Liver or in the Intestine Reveals Differential Effects on Sugar-Induced Metabolic Dysfunction.
    Ana Andres-Hernando, David J Orlicky, Masanari Kuwabara, Takuji Ishimoto, Takahiko Nakagawa, Richard J Johnson, Miguel A Lanaspa.
      Intake of fructose-containing sugars is strongly associated with metabolic syndrome. Compared with other sugars, dietary fructose is uniquely metabolized by fructokinase. However, the tissue-specific role of fructokinase in sugar-induced metabolic syndrome, and the specific roles of glucose and fructose in driving it, is not fully understood. Here, we show that in mice receiving excess fructose-glucose solutions, whole-body deletion of fructokinase, and thus full blockade of fructose metabolism, is sufficient to prevent metabolic syndrome. This protection is not only due to reduced fructose metabolism, but also due to decreased sugar intake. Furthermore, by using tissue-specific fructokinase-deficient mice, we determined that while sugar intake is controlled by intestinal fructokinase activity, metabolic syndrome is driven by fructose metabolism in the liver. Our findings show a two-pronged role for fructose metabolism in sugar-induced metabolic syndrome, one arm via the intestine that mediates sugar intake and a second arm in the liver that drives metabolic dysfunction.
    Keywords:  fructokinase; metabolic syndrome; obesity; sugar
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.05.012
  17. EMBO J. 2020 Jun 02. e103838
    Nucleotide depletion reveals the impaired ribosome biogenesis checkpoint as a barrier against DNA damage.
    Joffrey Pelletier, Ferran Riaño-Canalias, Eugènia Almacellas, Caroline Mauvezin, Sara Samino, Sonia Feu, Sandra Menoyo, Ana Domostegui, Marta Garcia-Cajide, Ramon Salazar, Constanza Cortés, Ricard Marcos, Albert Tauler, Oscar Yanes, Neus Agell, Sara C Kozma, Antonio Gentilella, George Thomas.
      Many oncogenes enhance nucleotide usage to increase ribosome content, DNA replication, and cell proliferation, but in parallel trigger p53 activation. Both the impaired ribosome biogenesis checkpoint (IRBC) and the DNA damage response (DDR) have been implicated in p53 activation following nucleotide depletion. However, it is difficult to reconcile the two checkpoints operating together, as the IRBC induces p21-mediated G1 arrest, whereas the DDR requires that cells enter S phase. Gradual inhibition of inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), an enzyme required for de novo GMP synthesis, reveals a hierarchical organization of these two checkpoints. We find that the IRBC is the primary nucleotide sensor, but increased IMPDH inhibition leads to p21 degradation, compromising IRBC-mediated G1 arrest and allowing S phase entry and DDR activation. Disruption of the IRBC alone is sufficient to elicit the DDR, which is strongly enhanced by IMPDH inhibition, suggesting that the IRBC acts as a barrier against genomic instability.
    Keywords:   IRBC ; IMPDH; nucleotides; p21; p53
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.2019103838
  18. Sci Adv. 2020 May;6(19): eaax9093
    Pharmacological modulation of mitochondrial calcium uniporter controls lung inflammation in cystic fibrosis.
    Alessandro Rimessi, Chiara Pozzato, Lorenzo Carparelli, Alice Rossi, Serena Ranucci, Ida De Fino, Cristina Cigana, Anna Talarico, Mariusz R Wieckowski, Carla M P Ribeiro, Claudio Trapella, Giacomo Rossi, Giulio Cabrini, Alessandra Bragonzi, Paolo Pinton.
      Mitochondria physically associate with the endoplasmic reticulum to coordinate interorganelle calcium transfer and regulate fundamental cellular processes, including inflammation. Deregulated endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria cross-talk can occur in cystic fibrosis, contributing to hyperinflammation and disease progression. We demonstrate that Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection increases endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria associations in cystic fibrosis bronchial cells by stabilizing VAPB-PTPIP51 (vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated protein B-protein tyrosine phosphatase interacting protein 51) tethers, affecting autophagy. Impaired autophagy induced mitochondrial unfolding protein response and NLRP3 inflammasome activation, contributing to hyperinflammation. The mechanism by which VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers regulate autophagy in cystic fibrosis involves calcium transfer via mitochondrial calcium uniporter. Mitochondrial calcium uniporter inhibition rectified autophagy and alleviated the inflammatory response in vitro and in vivo, resulting in a valid therapeutic strategy for cystic fibrosis pulmonary disease.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax9093
  19. Anal Biochem. 2020 May 27. pii: S0003-2697(20)30321-3. [Epub ahead of print] 113789
    Mitochondrial DNA methylation misleads global DNA methylation detected by antibody-based methods.
    Selcen Celik Uzuner.
      Cytosine methylation is the leading epigenetic modification on DNA playing a role in gene regulation. Methylation can occur in cytosines of any nucleic acids in cytosol (as mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA) and in nuclear DNA (ncDNA). mtDNA exists as multiple copies within numerous mitochondria. This suggests that the number of mitochondria and mtDNA copy number can indicate the presence of a significant amount of DNA methylation within total DNA methylation detected. However, immunofluorescence method does not have a step to discriminate the staining between ncDNA and mtDNA. Antibodies used in immunological methods are methylation-specific but not selective for DNA type and they can bind to methylated cytosines in any DNA within the specimen. Current study aimed to understand whether mtDNA methylation interferes with the detection of nuclear DNA methylation by immunofluorescence and affinity enrichment (ELISA) in different mammalian cells. Experiments were performed to distinguish methylation between mtDNA and ncDNA. Immunofluorescence showed that there was no significant difference in the detected amount of methylation between mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. But ELISA revealed that up to 25% of cellular methylation was derived from mitochondria. This suggests that significant contamination of mtDNA methylation with ncDNA methylation can result in overestimation of the quantitative level of nuclear methylation.
    Keywords:  DNA methylation; ELISA; affinity enrichment; flow cytometer; fluorescence microscopy; mitochondria
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ab.2020.113789
  20. Cell Metab. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S1550-4131(20)30252-7. [Epub ahead of print]31(6): 1041-1043
    Of Mice and Men: NAD+ Boosting with Niacin Provides Hope for Mitochondrial Myopathy Patients.
    Eduardo Nunes Chini.
      In this issue of Cell Metabolism, Pirinen et al. (2020) show that disruption in NAD+ homeostasis is a key component of the pathogenesis of mitochondrial myopathy in humans that can be targeted by the administration of the NAD+ precursor niacin, identifying NAD+ boosting as a potential treatment for this devastating disease.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.05.013
  21. Front Immunol. 2020 ;11 657
    Constitutive Expression of the Immunosuppressive Tryptophan Dioxygenase TDO2 in Glioblastoma Is Driven by the Transcription Factor C/EBPβ.
    Takumi Kudo, Mirja T Prentzell, Soumya R Mohapatra, Felix Sahm, Zhongliang Zhao, Ingrid Grummt, Wolfgang Wick, Christiane A Opitz, Michael Platten, Edward W Green.
      Catabolism of the essential amino acid tryptophan is a key metabolic pathway contributing to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and therefore a viable drug target for cancer immunotherapy. In addition to the rate-limiting enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase-1 (IDO1), tryptophan catabolism via tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) is a feature of many tumors, particularly malignant gliomas. The pathways regulating TDO2 in tumors are poorly understood; using unbiased promoter and gene expression analyses, we identify a distinct CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ) binding site in the promoter of TDO2 essential for driving constitutive TDO2 expression in glioblastoma cells. Using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data, we find that C/EBPβ expression is correlated with TDO2, and both are enriched in malignant glioma of the mesenchymal subtype and associated with poor patient outcome. We determine that TDO2 expression is sustained mainly by the LAP isoform of CEBPB and interleukin-1β, which activates TDO2 via C/EBPβ in a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase-dependent fashion. In summary, we provide evidence for a novel regulatory and therapeutically targetable pathway of immunosuppressive tryptophan degradation in a subtype of glioblastoma with a particularly poor prognosis.
    Keywords:  CEBPB; IL1B; TDO2; glioblastoma; regulation; tryptophan
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00657
  22. Nat Commun. 2020 Jun 03. 11(1): 2790
    Independent regulation of age associated fat accumulation and longevity.
    Anthony O Beas, Patricia B Gordon, Clara L Prentiss, Carissa Perez Olsen, Matthew A Kukurugya, Bryson D Bennett, Susan M Parkhurst, Daniel E Gottschling.
      Age-dependent changes in metabolism can manifest as cellular lipid accumulation, but how this accumulation is regulated or impacts longevity is poorly understood. We find that Saccharomyces cerevisiae accumulate lipid droplets (LDs) during aging. We also find that over-expressing BNA2, the first Biosynthesis of NAD+ (kynurenine) pathway gene, reduces LD accumulation during aging and extends lifespan. Mechanistically, this LD accumulation during aging is not linked to NAD+ levels, but is anti-correlated with metabolites of the shikimate and aromatic amino acid biosynthesis (SA) pathways (upstream of BNA2), which produce tryptophan (the Bna2p substrate). We provide evidence that over-expressed BNA2 skews glycolytic flux from LDs towards the SA-BNA pathways, effectively reducing LDs. Importantly, we find that accumulation of LDs does not shorten lifespan, but does protect aged cells against stress. Our findings reveal how lipid accumulation impacts longevity, and how aging cell metabolism can be rewired to modulate lipid accumulation independently from longevity.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16358-7
  23. PLoS Genet. 2020 Jun 04. 16(6): e1008808
    In vivo modeling of metastatic human high-grade serous ovarian cancer in mice.
    Olga Kim, Eun Young Park, David L Klinkebiel, Svetlana D Pack, Yong-Hyun Shin, Zied Abdullaev, Robert E Emerson, Donna M Coffey, Sun Young Kwon, Chad J Creighton, Sanghoon Kwon, Edmund C Chang, Theodore Chiang, Alexander N Yatsenko, Jeremy Chien, Dong-Joo Cheon, Yang Yang-Hartwich, Harikrishna Nakshatri, Kenneth P Nephew, Richard R Behringer, Facundo M Fernández, Chi-Heum Cho, Barbara Vanderhyden, Ronny Drapkin, Robert C Bast, Kathy D Miller, Adam R Karpf, Jaeyeon Kim.
      Metastasis is responsible for 90% of human cancer mortality, yet it remains a challenge to model human cancer metastasis in vivo. Here we describe mouse models of high-grade serous ovarian cancer, also known as high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC), the most common and deadliest human ovarian cancer type. Mice genetically engineered to harbor Dicer1 and Pten inactivation and mutant p53 robustly replicate the peritoneal metastases of human HGSC with complete penetrance. Arising from the fallopian tube, tumors spread to the ovary and metastasize throughout the pelvic and peritoneal cavities, invariably inducing hemorrhagic ascites. Widespread and abundant peritoneal metastases ultimately cause mouse deaths (100%). Besides the phenotypic and histopathological similarities, mouse HGSCs also display marked chromosomal instability, impaired DNA repair, and chemosensitivity. Faithfully recapitulating the clinical metastases as well as molecular and genomic features of human HGSC, this murine model will be valuable for elucidating the mechanisms underlying the development and progression of metastatic ovarian cancer and also for evaluating potential therapies.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1008808
  24. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2020 May 31.
    Emerging roles of autophagy in hepatic tumorigenesis and therapeutic strategies in glycogen storage disease type Ia: a review.
    Jun-Ho Cho, David A Weinstein, Young Mok Lee.
      Glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSD-Ia) is an inherited metabolic disease caused by a deficiency in glucose-6-phosphatase-α (G6Pase-α or G6PC) which plays a critical role in blood glucose homeostasis by catalyzing the hydrolysis of glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) to glucose and phosphate in the terminal step of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Patients with GSD-Ia manifest life-threatening fasting hypoglycemia along with excessive accumulation of hepatic glycogen and triglycerides which results in hepatomegaly and a risk of long-term complications such as hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma (HCA/HCC). The etiology of HCA/HCC development in GSD-Ia, however, is unknown. Recent studies have shown that the livers in model animals of GSD-Ia display impairment of autophagy, a cellular recycling process which is critical for energy metabolism and cellular homeostasis. However, molecular mechanisms of autophagy impairment and its involvement in pathogenesis in GSD-Ia are still under investigation. Here, we summarize the latest advances for signaling pathways implicated in hepatic autophagy impairment and the roles of autophagy in hepatic tumorigenesis in GSD-Ia. In addition, recent evidence has illustrated that autophagy plays an important role in hepatic metabolism and liver-directed gene therapy mediated by recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV). Therefore, we highlight possible role of hepatic autophagy in metabolic control and rAAV-mediated gene therapy for GSD-Ia. In this review, we also provide potential therapeutic strategies for GSD-Ia on the basis of molecular mechanisms underlying hepatic autophagy impairment in GSD-Ia. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
    Keywords:  Autophagy; gene therapy; glucose-6-phosphatase-α; hepatocellular adenoma and carcinoma; liver metabolism
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/jimd.12267
  25. Nat Commun. 2020 Jun 05. 11(1): 2857
    Metabolic characteristics of CD8+ T cell subsets in young and aged individuals are not predictive of functionality.
    Kylie M Quinn, Tabinda Hussain, Felix Kraus, Luke E Formosa, Wai K Lam, Michael J Dagley, Eleanor C Saunders, Lisa M Assmus, Erica Wynne-Jones, Liyen Loh, Carolien E van de Sandt, Lucy Cooper, Kim L Good-Jacobson, Katherine Kedzierska, Laura K Mackay, Malcolm J McConville, Georg Ramm, Michael T Ryan, Nicole L La Gruta.
      Virtual memory T (TVM) cells are antigen-naïve CD8+ T cells that exist in a semi-differentiated state and exhibit marked proliferative dysfunction in advanced age. High spare respiratory capacity (SRC) has been proposed as a defining metabolic characteristic of antigen-experienced memory T (TMEM) cells, facilitating rapid functionality and survival. Given the semi-differentiated state of TVM cells and their altered functionality with age, here we investigate TVM cell metabolism and its association with longevity and functionality. Elevated SRC is a feature of TVM, but not TMEM, cells and it increases with age in both subsets. The elevated SRC observed in aged mouse TVM cells and human CD8+ T cells from older individuals is associated with a heightened sensitivity to IL-15. We conclude that elevated SRC is a feature of TVM, but not TMEM, cells, is driven by physiological levels of IL-15, and is not indicative of enhanced functionality in CD8+ T cells.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16633-7
  26. Front Oncol. 2020 ;10 776
    Proline Metabolism in Tumor Growth and Metastatic Progression.
    Cristina D'Aniello, Eduardo J Patriarca, James M Phang, Gabriella Minchiotti.
      Cancer cells show a formidable capacity to survive under stringent conditions, to elude mechanisms of control, such as apoptosis, and to resist therapy. Cancer cells reprogram their metabolism to support uncontrolled proliferation and metastatic progression. Phenotypic and functional heterogeneity are hallmarks of cancer cells, which endow them with aggressiveness, metastatic capacity, and resistance to therapy. This heterogeneity is regulated by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli including those from the tumor microenvironment. Increasing evidence points to a key role for the metabolism of non-essential amino acids in this complex scenario. Here we discuss the impact of proline metabolism in cancer development and progression, with particular emphasis on the enzymes involved in proline synthesis and catabolism, which are linked to pathways of energy, redox, and anaplerosis. In particular, we emphasize how proline availability influences collagen synthesis and maturation and the acquisition of cancer cell plasticity and heterogeneity. Specifically, we propose a model whereby proline availability generates a cycle based on collagen synthesis and degradation, which, in turn, influences the epigenetic landscape and tumor heterogeneity. Therapeutic strategies targeting this metabolic-epigenetic axis hold great promise for the treatment of metastatic cancers.
    Keywords:  ALDH18A1; Budesonide; PRODH; PYCR1; collagen prolyl-hydroxylases; epigenetic remodeling; metabolic reprogramming; proline
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2020.00776
  27. Toxicol In Vitro. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S0887-2333(20)30457-4. [Epub ahead of print] 104907
    Oligomycin-induced proton uncoupling.
    Abby Hearne, Haotong Chen, Anna Monarchino, Jeffrey S Wiseman.
      Oligomycin is a classical mitochondrial reagent that binds to the proton channel on the Fo component of ATP synthase. As a result, oligomycin blocks mitochondrial ATP synthesis, proton translocation, and O2 uptake. Here we show that oligomycin induces proton uncoupling subsequent to inhibition of ATP synthesis, as evidenced by recovery of O2 uptake to near baseline levels. Uncoupling is uniquely rapid and readily observed in HepG2 cells but is also observed at longer times in the unrelated H1299 cell line. Proton fluxes plateau at oligomycin concentrations in the region 0.25-5 μM. At the plateau, fluxes are lower than expected for the classical mitochondrial permeability transition pore, although in H1229 cells, fluxes increase to levels consistent with pore opening at higher oligomycin concentrations. Uncoupling is observed in cells metabolizing either pyruvate or lactate and reversed by addition of glucose to restore ATP synthesis. Uncoupling is not sensitive to cyclosporin A and is not reversed by the ANT inhibitor bongkrekic acid. However, bongkrekic acid inhibits uncoupling if added before oligomycin, which we interpret in terms of maintenance of mitochondrial ATP levels.
    Keywords:  Bongkrekic acid; Bz-423; HepG2; Mitochondrial permeability transition pore; Oligomycin; Proton uncoupling
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2020.104907
  28. EMBO Rep. 2020 Jun 04. e50287
    Scaf1 promotes respiratory supercomplexes and metabolic efficiency in zebrafish.
    Carolina García-Poyatos, Sara Cogliati, Enrique Calvo, Pablo Hernansanz-Agustín, Sylviane Lagarrigue, Ricardo Magni, Marius Botos, Xavier Langa, Francesca Amati, Jesús Vázquez, Nadia Mercader, José Antonio Enríquez.
      The oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system is a dynamic system in which the respiratory complexes coexist with super-assembled quaternary structures called supercomplexes (SCs). The physiological role of SCs is still disputed. Here, we used zebrafish to study the relevance of respiratory SCs. We combined immunodetection analysis and deep data-independent proteomics to characterize these structures and found similar SCs to those described in mice, as well as novel SCs including III2  + IV2 , I + IV, and I + III2  + IV2 . To study the physiological role of SCs, we generated two null allele zebrafish lines for supercomplex assembly factor 1 (scaf1). scaf1-/- fish displayed altered OXPHOS activity due to the disrupted interaction of complexes III and IV. scaf1-/- fish were smaller in size and showed abnormal fat deposition and decreased female fertility. These physiological phenotypes were rescued by doubling the food supply, which correlated with improved bioenergetics and alterations in the metabolic gene expression program. These results reveal that SC assembly by Scaf1 modulates OXPHOS efficiency and allows the optimization of metabolic resources.
    Keywords:  OXPHOS super-assembly; SCAF1/COX7A2L; metabolism; mitochondria; zebrafish
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.202050287
  29. Cell Stem Cell. 2020 Jun 04. pii: S1934-5909(20)30200-9. [Epub ahead of print]26(6): 817-831
    Circadian Regulation of Adult Stem Cell Homeostasis and Aging.
    Salvador Aznar Benitah, Patrick-Simon Welz.
      The circadian clock temporally organizes cellular physiology throughout the day, allowing daily environmental changes to be anticipated and potentially harmful physiologic processes to be temporally separated. By synchronizing all cells at the tissue level, the circadian clock ensures coherent temporal organismal physiology. Recent advances in our understanding of adult stem cell physiology suggest that aging and perturbations in circadian rhythmicity in stem cells are tightly intertwined. Here we discuss how circadian rhythms regulate and synchronize adult stem cell functions and how alterations in clock function during aging modulate the extrinsic and intrinsic mechanisms that determine adult stem cell homeostasis.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2020.05.002
  30. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2020 Jun 03.
    Creatine metabolism: energy homeostasis, immunity and cancer biology.
    Lawrence Kazak, Paul Cohen.
      Perturbations in metabolic processes are associated with diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, certain infections and some cancers. A resurgence of interest in creatine biology is developing, with new insights into a diverse set of regulatory functions for creatine. This resurgence is primarily driven by technological advances in genetic engineering and metabolism as well as by the realization that this metabolite has key roles in cells beyond the muscle and brain. Herein, we highlight the latest advances in creatine biology in tissues and cell types that have historically received little attention in the field. In adipose tissue, creatine controls thermogenic respiration and loss of this metabolite impairs whole-body energy expenditure, leading to obesity. We also cover the various roles that creatine metabolism has in cancer cell survival and the function of the immune system. Renewed interest in this area has begun to showcase the therapeutic potential that lies in understanding how changes in creatine metabolism lead to metabolic disease.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-0365-5
  31. BMC Cancer. 2020 Jun 05. 20(1): 526
    Metabolic profile of leukemia cells influences treatment efficacy of L-asparaginase.
    Katerina Hlozkova, Alena Pecinova, Natividad Alquezar-Artieda, David Pajuelo-Reguera, Marketa Simcikova, Lenka Hovorkova, Katerina Rejlova, Marketa Zaliova, Tomas Mracek, Alexandra Kolenova, Jan Stary, Jan Trka, Julia Starkova.
       BACKGROUND: Effectiveness of L-asparaginase administration in acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment is mirrored in the overall outcome of patients. Generally, leukemia patients differ in their sensitivity to L-asparaginase; however, the mechanism underlying their inter-individual differences is still not fully understood. We have previously shown that L-asparaginase rewires the biosynthetic and bioenergetic pathways of leukemia cells to activate both anti-leukemic and pro-survival processes. Herein, we investigated the relationship between the metabolic profile of leukemia cells and their sensitivity to currently used cytostatic drugs.
    METHODS: Altogether, 19 leukemia cell lines, primary leukemia cells from 26 patients and 2 healthy controls were used. Glycolytic function and mitochondrial respiration were measured using Seahorse Bioanalyzer. Sensitivity to cytostatics was measured using MTS assay and/or absolute count and flow cytometry. Mitochondrial membrane potential was determined as TMRE fluorescence.
    RESULTS: Using cell lines and primary patient samples we characterized the basal metabolic state of cells derived from different leukemia subtypes and assessed their sensitivity to cytostatic drugs. We found that leukemia cells cluster into distinct groups according to their metabolic profile. Lymphoid leukemia cell lines and patients sensitive to L-asparaginase clustered into the low glycolytic cluster. While lymphoid leukemia cells with lower sensitivity to L-asparaginase together with resistant normal mononuclear blood cells gathered into the high glycolytic cluster. Furthermore, we observed a correlation of specific metabolic parameters with the sensitivity to L-asparaginase. Greater ATP-linked respiration and lower basal mitochondrial membrane potential in cells significantly correlated with higher sensitivity to L-asparaginase. No such correlation was found in the other cytostatic drugs tested by us.
    CONCLUSIONS: These data support that cell metabolism plays a prominent role in the treatment effect of L-asparaginase. Based on these findings, leukemia patients with lower sensitivity to L-asparaginase with no specific genetic characterization could be identified by their metabolic profile.
    Keywords:  L-asparaginase; cancer metabolism; fatty acid oxidation; glycolysis; leukemia; mitochondrial membrane potential; mitochondrial respiration; resistance
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-020-07020-y
  32. Cell Metab. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S1550-4131(20)30255-2. [Epub ahead of print]31(6): 1033-1034
    Valuing Diversity.
    Rosalind Mott, Randy Levinson, Allyson Evans.
      
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.05.016
  33. Dev Cell. 2020 May 21. pii: S1534-5807(20)30358-0. [Epub ahead of print]
    Caveolae Control Contractile Tension for Epithelia to Eliminate Tumor Cells.
    Jessica L Teo, Guillermo A Gomez, Saroja Weeratunga, Elizabeth M Davies, Ivar Noordstra, Srikanth Budnar, Hiroko Katsuno-Kambe, Meagan J McGrath, Suzie Verma, Vanesa Tomatis, Bipul R Acharya, Lakshmi Balasubramaniam, Rachel M Templin, Kerrie-Ann McMahon, Yoke Seng Lee, Robert J Ju, Samantha J Stebhens, Benoit Ladoux, Christina A Mitchell, Brett M Collins, Robert G Parton, Alpha S Yap.
      Epithelia are active materials where mechanical tension governs morphogenesis and homeostasis. But how that tension is regulated remains incompletely understood. We now report that caveolae control epithelial tension and show that this is necessary for oncogene-transfected cells to be eliminated by apical extrusion. Depletion of caveolin-1 (CAV1) increased steady-state tensile stresses in epithelial monolayers. As a result, loss of CAV1 in the epithelial cells surrounding oncogene-expressing cells prevented their apical extrusion. Epithelial tension in CAV1-depleted monolayers was increased by cortical contractility at adherens junctions. This reflected a signaling pathway, where elevated levels of phosphoinositide-4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) recruited the formin, FMNL2, to promote F-actin bundling. Steady-state monolayer tension and oncogenic extrusion were restored to CAV1-depleted monolayers when tension was corrected by depleting FMNL2, blocking PtdIns(4,5)P2, or disabling the interaction between FMNL2 and PtdIns(4,5)P2. Thus, caveolae can regulate active mechanical tension for epithelial homeostasis by controlling lipid signaling to the actin cytoskeleton.
    Keywords:  actomyosin; caveolae; epithelial tension; extrusion; phosphoinositides
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2020.05.002
  34. Nat Commun. 2020 Jun 03. 11(1): 2794
    A SAM-I riboswitch with the ability to sense and respond to uncharged initiator tRNA.
    Dong-Jie Tang, Xinyu Du, Qiang Shi, Jian-Ling Zhang, Yuan-Ping He, Yan-Miao Chen, Zhenhua Ming, Dan Wang, Wan-Ying Zhong, Yu-Wei Liang, Jin-Yang Liu, Jian-Ming Huang, Yun-Shi Zhong, Shi-Qi An, Hongzhou Gu, Ji-Liang Tang.
      All known riboswitches use their aptamer to senese one metabolite signal and their expression platform to regulate gene expression. Here, we characterize a SAM-I riboswitch (SAM-IXcc) from the Xanthomonas campestris that regulates methionine synthesis via the met operon. In vitro and in vivo experiments show that SAM-IXcc controls the met operon primarily at the translational level in response to cellular S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) levels. Biochemical and genetic data demonstrate that SAM-IXcc expression platform not only can repress gene expression in response to SAM binding to SAM-IXcc aptamer but also can sense and bind uncharged initiator Met tRNA, resulting in the sequestering of the anti-Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence and freeing the SD for translation initiation. These findings identify a SAM-I riboswitch with a dual functioning expression platform that regulates methionine synthesis through a previously unrecognized mechanism and discover a natural tRNA-sensing RNA element. This SAM-I riboswitch appears to be highly conserved in Xanthomonas species.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16417-z
  35. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev. 2020 Jun 12. 17 1071-1078
    A Single Intravenous Injection of AAV-PHP.B-hNDUFS4 Ameliorates the Phenotype of Ndufs4 -/- Mice.
    Pedro Silva-Pinheiro, Raffaele Cerutti, Marta Luna-Sanchez, Massimo Zeviani, Carlo Viscomi.
      Leigh syndrome, or infantile necrotizing subacute encephalopathy (OMIM #256000), is one of the most common manifestations of mitochondrial dysfunction, due to mutations in more than 75 genes, with mutations in respiratory complex I subunits being the most common cause. In the present study, we used the recently described PHP.B serotype, characterized by efficient capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier, to express the hNDUFS4 gene in the Ndufs4 -/- mouse model of Leigh disease. A single intravenous injection of PHP.B-hNDUFS4 in adult Ndufs4 -/- mice led to a normalization of the body weight, marked amelioration of the rotarod performance, delayed onset of neurodegeneration, and prolongation of the lifespan up to 1 year of age. hNDUFS4 protein was expressed in virtually all brain regions, leading to a partial recovery of complex I activity. Our findings strongly support the feasibility and effectiveness of adeno-associated viral vector (AAV)-mediated gene therapy for mitochondrial disease, particularly with new serotypes showing increased permeability to the blood-brain barrier in order to achieve widespread expression in the central nervous system.
    Keywords:  AAV; Leigh syndrome; Ndufs4; OXPHOS; PHP.B; complex I; gene therapy; mitochondrial diseases
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.omtm.2020.04.026
  36. Mol Cell. 2020 May 20. pii: S1097-2765(20)30308-7. [Epub ahead of print]
    Acetyl-CoA Derived from Hepatic Peroxisomal β-Oxidation Inhibits Autophagy and Promotes Steatosis via mTORC1 Activation.
    Anyuan He, Xiaowen Chen, Min Tan, Yali Chen, Dongliang Lu, Xiangyu Zhang, John M Dean, Babak Razani, Irfan J Lodhi.
      Autophagy is activated by prolonged fasting but cannot overcome the ensuing hepatic lipid overload, resulting in fatty liver. Here, we describe a peroxisome-lysosome metabolic link that restricts autophagic degradation of lipids. Acyl-CoA oxidase 1 (Acox1), the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in peroxisomal β-oxidation, is enriched in liver and further increases with fasting or high-fat diet (HFD). Liver-specific Acox1 knockout (Acox1-LKO) protected mice against hepatic steatosis caused by starvation or HFD due to induction of autophagic degradation of lipid droplets. Hepatic Acox1 deficiency markedly lowered total cytosolic acetyl-CoA levels, which led to decreased Raptor acetylation and reduced lysosomal localization of mTOR, resulting in impaired activation of mTORC1, a central regulator of autophagy. Dichloroacetic acid treatment elevated acetyl-CoA levels, restored mTORC1 activation, inhibited autophagy, and increased hepatic triglycerides in Acox1-LKO mice. These results identify peroxisome-derived acetyl-CoA as a key metabolic regulator of autophagy that controls hepatic lipid homeostasis.
    Keywords:  Acox1; Autophagy; Lipid metabolism; NAFLD; Raptor; fatty acid oxidation; lipophagy; mTOR; peroxisomes
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2020.05.007
  37. Cancer Cell. 2020 May 30. pii: S1535-6108(20)30218-X. [Epub ahead of print]
    MYC Drives Temporal Evolution of Small Cell Lung Cancer Subtypes by Reprogramming Neuroendocrine Fate.
    Abbie S Ireland, Alexi M Micinski, David W Kastner, Bingqian Guo, Sarah J Wait, Kyle B Spainhower, Christopher C Conley, Opal S Chen, Matthew R Guthrie, Danny Soltero, Yi Qiao, Xiaomeng Huang, Szabolcs Tarapcsák, Siddhartha Devarakonda, Milind D Chalishazar, Jason Gertz, Justin C Moser, Gabor Marth, Sonam Puri, Benjamin L Witt, Benjamin T Spike, Trudy G Oliver.
      Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a neuroendocrine tumor treated clinically as a single disease with poor outcomes. Distinct SCLC molecular subtypes have been defined based on expression of ASCL1, NEUROD1, POU2F3, or YAP1. Here, we use mouse and human models with a time-series single-cell transcriptome analysis to reveal that MYC drives dynamic evolution of SCLC subtypes. In neuroendocrine cells, MYC activates Notch to dedifferentiate tumor cells, promoting a temporal shift in SCLC from ASCL1+ to NEUROD1+ to YAP1+ states. MYC alternatively promotes POU2F3+ tumors from a distinct cell type. Human SCLC exhibits intratumoral subtype heterogeneity, suggesting that this dynamic evolution occurs in patient tumors. These findings suggest that genetics, cell of origin, and tumor cell plasticity determine SCLC subtype.
    Keywords:  ASCL1; MYC; NEUROD1; NOTCH; SCLC; YAP1; mouse models; neuroendocrine; plasticity; tumor evolution
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2020.05.001
  38. Life Sci Alliance. 2020 Jul;pii: e201900620. [Epub ahead of print]3(7):
    Quantification of cristae architecture reveals time-dependent characteristics of individual mitochondria.
    Mayuko Segawa, Dane M Wolf, Nan W Hultgren, David S Williams, Alexander M van der Bliek, David B Shackelford, Marc Liesa, Orian S Shirihai.
      Recent breakthroughs in live-cell imaging have enabled visualization of cristae, making it feasible to investigate the structure-function relationship of cristae in real time. However, quantifying live-cell images of cristae in an unbiased way remains challenging. Here, we present a novel, semi-automated approach to quantify cristae, using the machine-learning Trainable Weka Segmentation tool. Compared with standard techniques, our approach not only avoids the bias associated with manual thresholding but more efficiently segments cristae from Airyscan and structured illumination microscopy images. Using a cardiolipin-deficient cell line, as well as FCCP, we show that our approach is sufficiently sensitive to detect perturbations in cristae density, size, and shape. This approach, moreover, reveals that cristae are not uniformly distributed within the mitochondrion, and sites of mitochondrial fission are localized to areas of decreased cristae density. After a fusion event, individual cristae from the two mitochondria, at the site of fusion, merge into one object with distinct architectural values. Overall, our study shows that machine learning represents a compelling new strategy for quantifying cristae in living cells.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.26508/lsa.201900620
  39. Cell Metab. 2020 Jun 02. pii: S1550-4131(20)30249-7. [Epub ahead of print]31(6): 1047-1049
    Break on Through: Golgi-Derived Vesicles Aid in Mitochondrial Fission.
    Megan L Rasmussen, Gabriella L Robertson, Vivian Gama.
      Mitochondrial fission is sustained through contact with several organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and the actin cytoskeleton. Nagashima et al. (2020) now demonstrate that PI(4)P-containing Golgi-derived vesicles also modulate mitochondrial fission, driven by Arf1 and PI(4)KIIIβ activity, identifying a new organelle contact involved in maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.05.010
  40. Cell Chem Biol. 2020 Jun 01. pii: S2451-9456(20)30185-9. [Epub ahead of print]
    An Isoform-Selective Modulator of Cryptochrome 1 Regulates Circadian Rhythms in Mammals.
    Simon Miller, Yoshiki Aikawa, Akiko Sugiyama, Yoshiko Nagai, Aya Hara, Tsuyoshi Oshima, Kazuma Amaike, Steve A Kay, Kenichiro Itami, Tsuyoshi Hirota.
      Cryptochrome 1 (CRY1) and CRY2 are core regulators of the circadian clock, and the development of isoform-selective modulators is important for the elucidation of their redundant and distinct functions. Here, we report the identification and functional characterization of a small-molecule modulator of the mammalian circadian clock that selectively controls CRY1. Cell-based circadian chemical screening identified a thienopyrimidine derivative KL201 that lengthened the period of circadian rhythms in cells and tissues. Functional assays revealed stabilization of CRY1 but not CRY2 by KL201. A structure-activity relationship study of KL201 derivatives in combination with X-ray crystallography of the CRY1-KL201 complex uncovered critical sites and interactions required for CRY1 regulation. KL201 bound to CRY1 in overlap with FBXL3, a subunit of ubiquitin ligase complex, and the effect of KL201 was blunted by knockdown of FBXL3. KL201 will facilitate isoform-selective regulation of CRY1 to accelerate chronobiology research and therapeutics against clock-related diseases.
    Keywords:  X-ray crystallography; chemical biology; circadian clock; cryptochrome; small-molecule modulator
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.05.008
  41. J Clin Invest. 2020 Jun 01. pii: 132876. [Epub ahead of print]130(6): 3253-3269
    Parkin ubiquitinates phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase to suppress serine synthesis and tumor progression.
    Juan Liu, Cen Zhang, Hao Wu, Xiao-Xin Sun, Yanchen Li, Shan Huang, Xuetian Yue, Shou-En Lu, Zhiyuan Shen, Xiaoyang Su, Eileen White, Bruce G Haffty, Wenwei Hu, Zhaohui Feng.
      Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH), the first rate-limiting enzyme of serine synthesis, is frequently overexpressed in human cancer. PHGDH overexpression activates serine synthesis to promote cancer progression. Currently, PHGDH regulation in normal cells and cancer is not well understood. Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in Parkinson's disease, is a tumor suppressor. Parkin expression is frequently downregulated in many types of cancer, and its tumor-suppressive mechanism is poorly defined. Here, we show that PHGDH is a substrate for Parkin-mediated ubiquitination and degradation. Parkin interacted with PHGDH and ubiquitinated PHGDH at lysine 330, leading to PHGDH degradation to suppress serine synthesis. Parkin deficiency in cancer cells stabilized PHGDH and activated serine synthesis to promote cell proliferation and tumorigenesis, which was largely abolished by targeting PHGDH with RNA interference, CRISPR/Cas9 KO, or small-molecule PHGDH inhibitors. Furthermore, Parkin expression was inversely correlated with PHGDH expression in human breast cancer and lung cancer. Our results revealed PHGDH ubiquitination by Parkin as a crucial mechanism for PHGDH regulation that contributes to the tumor-suppressive function of Parkin and identified Parkin downregulation as a critical mechanism underlying PHGDH overexpression in cancer.
    Keywords:  Metabolism; Oncology; Tumor suppressors; Ubiquitin-proteosome system
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI132876
  42. Elife. 2020 Jun 02. pii: e55745. [Epub ahead of print]9
    Lysosome activity is modulated by multiple longevity pathways and is important for lifespan extension in C. elegans.
    Yanan Sun, Meijiao Li, Dongfeng Zhao, Xin Li, Chonglin Yang, Xiaochen Wang.
      Lysosomes play important roles in cellular degradation to maintain cell homeostasis. In order to understand whether and how lysosomes alter with age and contribute to lifespan regulation, we characterized multiple properties of lysosomes during the aging process in C. elegans. We uncovered age-dependent alterations in lysosomal morphology, motility, acidity and degradation activity, all of which indicate a decline in lysosome function with age. The age-associated lysosomal changes are suppressed in the long-lived mutants daf-2, eat-2 and isp-1, which extend lifespan by inhibiting insulin/IGF-1 signaling, reducing food intake and impairing mitochondrial function, respectively. We found that 43 lysosome genes exhibit reduced expression with age, including genes encoding subunits of the proton pump V-ATPase and cathepsin proteases. The expression of lysosome genes is upregulated in the long-lived mutants, and this upregulation requires the functions of DAF-16/FOXO and SKN-1/NRF2 transcription factors. Impairing lysosome function affects clearance of aggregate-prone proteins and disrupts lifespan extension in daf-2, eat-2 and isp-1 worms. Our data indicate that lysosome function is modulated by multiple longevity pathways and is important for lifespan extension.
    Keywords:  C. elegans; DAF-16/FOXO; SKN-1/NRF2; aging; cell biology; insuin/igf-1 signaling; longevity pathways; lysosome
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.55745
  43. Cell Metab. 2020 May 26. pii: S1550-4131(20)30241-2. [Epub ahead of print]
    Defined p16High Senescent Cell Types Are Indispensable for Mouse Healthspan.
    Laurent Grosse, Nicole Wagner, Alexander Emelyanov, Clement Molina, Sandra Lacas-Gervais, Kay-Dietrich Wagner, Dmitry V Bulavin.
      The accumulation of senescent cells can drive many age-associated phenotypes and pathologies. Consequently, it has been proposed that removing senescent cells might extend lifespan. Here, we generated two knockin mouse models targeting the best-characterized marker of senescence, p16Ink4a. Using a genetic lineage tracing approach, we found that age-induced p16High senescence is a slow process that manifests around 10-12 months of age. The majority of p16High cells were vascular endothelial cells mostly in liver sinusoids (LSECs), and to lesser extent macrophages and adipocytes. In turn, continuous or acute elimination of p16High senescent cells disrupted blood-tissue barriers with subsequent liver and perivascular tissue fibrosis and health deterioration. Our data show that senescent LSECs are not replaced after removal and have important structural and functional roles in the aging organism. In turn, delaying senescence or replacement of senescent LSECs could represent a powerful tool in slowing down aging.
    Keywords:  aging; fibrosis; lineage tracing; liver sinusoid endothelial cells; liver sinusoids; p16; senescence; vascular endothelial cells
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2020.05.002
  44. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2020 Jun 05. 1535370220929287
    NAD metabolism in aging and cancer.
    John Wr Kincaid, Nathan A Berger.
       IMPACT STATEMENT: NAD is a central metabolite connecting energy balance and organismal growth with genomic integrity and function. It is involved in the development of malignancy and has a regulatory role in the aging process. These processes are mediated by a diverse series of enzymes whose common focus is either NAD's biosynthesis or its utilization as a redox cofactor or enzyme substrate. These enzymes include dehydrogenases, cyclic ADP-ribose hydrolases, mono(ADP-ribosyl)transferases, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases, and sirtuin deacetylases. This article describes the manifold pathways that comprise NAD metabolism and promotes an increased awareness of how perturbations in these systems may be important in disease prevention and/or progression.
    Keywords:  NAD; aging; cancer; mono(ADP-ribose); poly(ADP-Ribose); sirtuins
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1177/1535370220929287
  45. Cancer Discov. 2020 Jun;10(6): 768-770
    The Golgi: Keeping It Unapologetically Basic.
    Nathan P Ward, Gina M DeNicola.
      Tumor cells maintain a reverse pH gradient relative to normal cells, conferring cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic benefits that sustain tumor growth. In this issue of Cancer Discovery, Galenkamp and colleagues reveal that NHE7 mediates acidification of the trans-Golgi network in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, which is critical for the maintenance of cytosolic pH and consequently tumor growth.See related article by Galenkamp et al., p. 822.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1158/2159-8290.CD-20-0357
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