bims-malgli Biomed News
on Biology of malignant gliomas
Issue of 2022–07–10
fourteen papers selected by
Oltea Sampetrean, Keio University
  1. GBP3 promotes glioblastoma resistance to temozolomide by enhancing DNA damage repair.
  2. Quantitative proteomic landscapes of primary and recurrent glioblastoma reveal a protumorigeneic role for FBXO2-dependent glioma-microenvironment interactions.
  3. High levels of NRF2 sensitize temozolomide-resistant glioblastoma cells to ferroptosis via ABCC1/MRP1 upregulation.
  4. A Promising Preclinical Model For Tert Promoter Mutation In Glioblastoma.
  5. Detection of temozolomide-induced hypermutation and response to PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor in recurrent glioblastoma.
  6. Brain Radiotoxicity-Related 15CAcBRT Gene Expression Signature Predicts Survival Prognosis of Glioblastoma Patients.
  7. Myeloid Cell Classification and Therapeutic Opportunities Within the Glioblastoma Tumor Microenvironment in the Single Cell-Omics Era.
  8. STING activation promotes robust immune response and NK cell-mediated tumor regression in glioblastoma models.
  9. Oncolytic Viral Therapy Is Feasible in Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma.
  10. Calpain-mediated cleavage generates a ZBTB18 N-terminal product that regulates HIF1A signaling and glioblastoma metabolism.
  11. Driving with Both Feet: Supplementing AKG While Inhibiting BCAT1 Leads to Synthetic Lethality in GBM.
  12. Structural variants shape driver combinations and outcomes in pediatric high-grade glioma.
  13. Interferon-γ resistance and immune evasion in glioma develop via Notch-regulated co-evolution of malignant and immune cells.
  14. Dynamic Interactions between Tumor Cells and Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells in Glioblastoma.
  1. Oncogene. 2022 Jul 02.
    GBP3 promotes glioblastoma resistance to temozolomide by enhancing DNA damage repair.
    Hui Xu, Jing Jin, Ying Chen, Guoqing Wu, Hua Zhu, Qing Wang, Ji Wang, Shenggang Li, Florina-Nicoleta Grigore, Jun Ma, Clark C Chen, Qing Lan, Ming Li.
      Glioblastoma is the most common malignant brain cancer with dismal survival and prognosis. Temozolomide (TMZ) is a first-line chemotherapeutic agent for glioblastoma, but the emergence of drug resistance limits its anti-tumor activity. We previously discovered that the interferon inducible guanylate binding protein 3 (GBP3) is highly elevated and promotes tumorigenicity of glioblastoma. Here, we show that TMZ treatment significantly upregulates the expression of GBP3 and stimulator of interferon genes (STING), both of which increase TMZ-induced DNA damage repair and reduce cell apoptosis of glioblastoma cells. Mechanistically, relying on its N-terminal GTPase domain, GBP3 physically interacts with STING to stabilize STING protein levels, which in turn induces expression of p62 (Sequestosome 1), nuclear factor erythroid 2 like 2 (NFE2L2, NRF2), and O6-methlyguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT), leading to the resistance to TMZ treatment. Reducing GBP3 levels by RNA interference in glioblastoma cells markedly increases the sensitivity to TMZ treatment in vitro and in murine glioblastoma models. Clinically, GBP3 expression is high and positively correlated with STING, NRF2, p62, and MGMT expression in human glioblastoma tumors, and is associated with poor outcomes. These findings provide novel insight into TMZ resistance and suggest that GBP3 may represent a novel potential target for the treatment of glioblastoma.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41388-022-02397-5
  2. Neuro Oncol. 2022 Jul 08. pii: noac169. [Epub ahead of print]
    Quantitative proteomic landscapes of primary and recurrent glioblastoma reveal a protumorigeneic role for FBXO2-dependent glioma-microenvironment interactions.
    Marcel Buehler, Xiao Yi, Weigang Ge, Peter Blattmann, Elisabeth Rushing, Guido Reifenberger, Joerg Felsberg, Charles Yeh, Jacob E Corn, Luca Regli, Junyi Zhang, Ann Cloos, Vidhya M Ravi, Benedikt Wiestler, Dieter Henrik Heiland, Ruedi Aebersold, Michael Weller, Tiannan Guo, Tobias Weiss.
       BACKGROUND: Recent efforts have described the evolution of glioblastoma from initial diagnosis to post-treatment recurrence on a genomic and transcriptomic level. However, the evolution of the proteomic landscape is largely unknown.
    METHODS: Sequential window acquisition of all theoretical mass spectra mass spectrometry (SWATH-MS) was used to characterize the quantitative proteomes of two independent cohorts of paired newly diagnosed and recurrent glioblastomas. Recurrence-associated proteins were validated using immunohistochemistry and further studied in human glioma cell lines, orthotopic xenograft models and human organotypic brain slice cultures. External spatial transcriptomics, single-cell- and bulk RNA sequencing data was analyzed to gain mechanistical insights.
    RESULTS: Although overall proteomic changes were heterogeneous across patients, we identified BCAS1, INF2 and FBXO2 as consistently upregulated proteins at recurrence and validated these using immunohistochemistry. Knockout of FBXO2 in human glioma cells conferred a strong survival benefit in orthotopic xenograft mouse models and reduced invasive growth in organotypic brain slice cultures. In glioblastoma patient samples, FBXO2 expression was enriched in the tumor infiltration zone and FBXO2-positive cancer cells were associated with synaptic signaling processes.
    CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate a potential role of FBXO2-dependent glioma-microenvironment interactions to promote tumor growth. Furthermore, the published datasets provide a valuable resource for further studies.
    Keywords:  Glioblastoma; PCT-SWATH; microenviroment; proteome
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noac169
  3. Cell Death Dis. 2022 Jul 08. 13(7): 591
    High levels of NRF2 sensitize temozolomide-resistant glioblastoma cells to ferroptosis via ABCC1/MRP1 upregulation.
    I de Souza, L K S Monteiro, C B Guedes, M M Silva, M Andrade-Tomaz, B Contieri, M T Latancia, D Mendes, B F M M Porchia, M Lazarini, L R Gomes, C R R Rocha.
      Glioblastoma patients have a poor prognosis mainly due to temozolomide (TMZ) resistance. NRF2 is an important transcript factor involved in chemotherapy resistance due to its protective role in the transcription of genes involved in cellular detoxification and prevention of cell death processes, such as ferroptosis. However, the relation between NRF2 and iron-dependent cell death in glioma is still poorly understood. Therefore, in this study, we analyzed the role of NRF2 in ferroptosis modulation in glioblastoma cells. Two human glioblastoma cell lines (U251MG and T98G) were examined after treatment with TMZ, ferroptosis inducers (Erastin, RSL3), and ferroptosis inhibitor (Ferrostatin-1). Our results demonstrated that T98G was more resistant to chemotherapy compared to U251MG and showed elevated levels of NRF2 expression. Interestingly, T98G revealed higher sensitivity to ferroptosis, and significant GSH depletion upon system xc- blockage. NRF2 silencing in T98G cells (T98G-shNRF2) significantly reduced the viability upon TMZ treatment. On the other hand, T98G-shNRF2 was resistant to ferroptosis and reverted intracellular GSH levels, indicating that NRF2 plays a key role in ferroptosis induction through GSH modulation. Moreover, silencing of ABCC1, a well-known NRF2 target that diminishes GSH levels, has demonstrated a similar collateral sensitivity. T98G-siABCC1 cells were more sensitive to TMZ and resistant to Erastin. Furthermore, we found that NRF2 positively correlates with ABCC1 expression in tumor tissues of glioma patients, which can be associated with tumor aggressiveness, drug resistance, and poor overall survival. Altogether, our data indicate that high levels of NRF2 result in collateral sensitivity on glioblastoma via the expression of its pro-ferroptotic target ABCC1, which contributes to GSH depletion when the system xc- is blocked by Erastin. Thus, ferroptosis induction could be an important therapeutic strategy to reverse drug resistance in gliomas with high NRF2 and ABCC1 expression.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-022-05044-9
  4. Neuro Oncol. 2022 Jul 03. pii: noac167. [Epub ahead of print]
    A Promising Preclinical Model For Tert Promoter Mutation In Glioblastoma.
    Jason T Huse.
      
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noac167
  5. Neurooncol Adv. 2022 Jan-Dec;4(1):4(1): vdac076
    Detection of temozolomide-induced hypermutation and response to PD-1 checkpoint inhibitor in recurrent glioblastoma.
    Paul Daniel, Brian Meehan, Siham Sabri, Fatemeh Jamali, Jann N Sarkaria, Dongsic Choi, Delphine Garnier, Gaspar Kitange, Kate I Glennon, Antoine Paccard, Jason Karamchandani, Yasser Riazalhosseini, Janusz Rak, Bassam Abdulkarim.
       Background: Despite aggressive upfront treatment in glioblastoma (GBM), recurrence remains inevitable for most patients. Accumulating evidence has identified hypermutation induced by temozolomide (TMZ) as an emerging subtype of recurrent GBM. However, its biological and therapeutic significance has yet to be described.
    Methods: We combined GBM patient and derive GBM stem cells (GSCs) from tumors following TMZ to explore response of hypermutant and non-hypermutant emergent phenotypes and explore the immune relevance of hypermutant and non-hypermutant states in vivo.
    Results: Hypermutation emerges as one of two possible mutational subtypes following TMZ treatment in vivo and demonstrates distinct phenotypic features compared to non-hypermutant recurrent GBM. Hypermutant tumors elicited robust immune rejection in subcutaneous contexts which was accompanied by increased immune cell infiltration. In contrast, immune rejection of hypermutant tumors were stunted in orthotopic settings where we observe limited immune infiltration. Use of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy showed that immunosuppression in orthotopic contexts was independent from the PD-1/PD-L1 axis. Finally, we demonstrate that mutational burden can be estimated from DNA contained in extracellular vesicles (EVs).
    Conclusion: Hypermutation post-TMZ are phenotypically distinct from non-hypermutant GBM and requires personalization for appropriate treatment. The brain microenvironment may be immunosuppressive and exploration of the mechanisms behind this may be key to improving immunotherapy response in this subtype of recurrent GBM.
    Keywords:  Temozolomide; glioblastoma; hypermutation; immune therapy; recurrence
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/noajnl/vdac076
  6. Neuro Oncol. 2022 Jul 08. pii: noac171. [Epub ahead of print]
    Brain Radiotoxicity-Related 15CAcBRT Gene Expression Signature Predicts Survival Prognosis of Glioblastoma Patients.
    Jesús Reyes-González, Francisco Barajas-Olmos, Humberto García-Ortiz, Lorena Magraner-Pardo, Tirso Pons, Sergio Moreno, Lucinda Aguirre-Cruz, Andy Reyes-Abrahantes, Angélica Martínez-Hernández, Cecilia Contreras-Cubas, Jorge Barrios-Payan, Henry J Ruiz-Garcia, Rogelio Hernandez-Pando, Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa, Lorena Orozco, María Del Carmen Abrahantes-Pérez.
       BACKGROUND: Glioblastoma is the most common and devastating primary brain cancer. Radiotherapy is standard of care; however, it is associated with brain radiation toxicity (BRT). This study used a multi-omics approach to determine whether BRT-related genes (RGs) harbor survival prognostic value and whether their encoded proteins represent novel therapeutic targets for glioblastoma.
    METHODS: RGs were identified through analysis of single nucleotide variants associated with BRT. Functional relationships between RGs were established using Protein-Protein Interaction networks. The influence of RGs and their functional groups on glioblastoma prognosis was evaluated using clinical samples from the Glioblastoma Bio-Discovery Portal database, and validated using the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas dataset. The identification of clusters of radiotoxic (R-SNVs) and putative pathogenic variants in proteins encoded by RGs was achieved by computational 3D structural analysis.
    RESULTS: We identified the BRT-related 15CAcBRT molecular signature with prognostic value in glioblastoma, by analysis of the COMT and APOE protein functional groups. Its external validation confirmed clinical relevance independent of age, MGMT promoter methylation status, and IDH mutation status. Interestingly, the genes IL6, APOE, and MAOB documented significant gene expression levels alteration, useful for drug repositioning. Biological networks associated with 15CAcBRT signature involved pathways relevant in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Analysis of 3D clusters of radiotoxic and putative pathogenic variants in proteins coded by RGs unveiled potential novel therapeutic targets in neuro-oncology.
    CONCLUSIONS: 15CAcBRT is a BRT-related molecular signature with prognostic significance for glioblastoma patients and represents a hub for drug repositioning and development of novel therapies.
    Keywords:  Brain Radiotoxicity; COMT; Glioblastoma; Molecular Signatures; Prognosis
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noac171
  7. Front Immunol. 2022 ;13 907605
    Myeloid Cell Classification and Therapeutic Opportunities Within the Glioblastoma Tumor Microenvironment in the Single Cell-Omics Era.
    Collin J Larkin, Víctor A Arrieta, Hinda Najem, Gongbo Li, Peng Zhang, Jason Miska, Peiwen Chen, Charles David James, Adam M Sonabend, Amy B Heimberger.
      The glioma tumor microenvironment (TME) is complex and heterogeneous, and multiple emerging and current technologies are being utilized for an improved comprehension and understanding of these tumors. Single cell analysis techniques such as single cell genomic and transcriptomic sequencing analysis are on the rise and play an important role in elucidating the glioma TME. These large datasets will prove useful for patient tumor characterization, including immune configuration that will ultimately influence therapeutic choices and especially immune therapies. In this review we discuss the advantages and drawbacks of these techniques while debating their role in the domain of glioma-infiltrating myeloid cells characterization and function.
    Keywords:  glioblastoma; immunotherapy; macrophage; single cell analysis; spatial analysis; transcriptomics; tumor microenvironment
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.907605
  8. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2022 Jul 12. 119(28): e2111003119
    STING activation promotes robust immune response and NK cell-mediated tumor regression in glioblastoma models.
    Gilles Berger, Erik H Knelson, Jorge L Jimenez-Macias, Michal O Nowicki, Saemi Han, Eleni Panagioti, Patrick H Lizotte, Kwasi Adu-Berchie, Alexander Stafford, Nikolaos Dimitrakakis, Lanlan Zhou, E Antonio Chiocca, David J Mooney, David A Barbie, Sean E Lawler.
      Immunotherapy has had a tremendous impact on cancer treatment in the past decade, with hitherto unseen responses at advanced and metastatic stages of the disease. However, the aggressive brain tumor glioblastoma (GBM) is highly immunosuppressive and remains largely refractory to current immunotherapeutic approaches. The stimulator of interferon genes (STING) DNA sensing pathway has emerged as a next-generation immunotherapy target with potent local immune stimulatory properties. Here, we investigated the status of the STING pathway in GBM and the modulation of the brain tumor microenvironment (TME) with the STING agonist ADU-S100. Our data reveal the presence of STING in human GBM specimens, where it stains strongly in the tumor vasculature. We show that human GBM explants can respond to STING agonist treatment by secretion of inflammatory cytokines. In murine GBM models, we show a profound shift in the tumor immune landscape after STING agonist treatment, with massive infiltration of the tumor-bearing hemisphere with innate immune cells including inflammatory macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer (NK) populations. Treatment of established murine intracranial GL261 and CT-2A tumors by biodegradable ADU-S100-loaded intracranial implants demonstrated a significant increase in survival in both models and long-term survival with immune memory in GL261. Responses to treatment were abolished by NK cell depletion. This study reveals therapeutic potential and deep remodeling of the TME by STING activation in GBM and warrants further examination of STING agonists alone or in combination with other immunotherapies such as cancer vaccines, chimeric antigen receptor T cells, NK therapies, and immune checkpoint blockade.
    Keywords:  NK cells; STING; glioblastoma; immunotherapy
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2111003119
  9. Cancer Discov. 2022 Jul 08. OF1
    Oncolytic Viral Therapy Is Feasible in Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma.
      Infusion of an oncolytic virus followed by radiotherapy led to responses and prolonged survival in patients with DIPG.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1158/2159-8290.CD-RW2022-0123
  10. iScience. 2022 Jul 15. 25(7): 104625
    Calpain-mediated cleavage generates a ZBTB18 N-terminal product that regulates HIF1A signaling and glioblastoma metabolism.
    Anie P Masilamani, Rana Schulzki, Shuai Yuan, Ira V Haase, Eva Kling, Franziska Dewes, Geoffroy Andrieux, Melanie Börries, Oliver Schnell, Dieter H Heiland, Oliver Schilling, Roberto Ferrarese, Maria S Carro.
      Proteolytic cleavage is an important post-translational mechanism to increase protein variability and functionality. In cancer, this process can be deregulated to shut off tumor-suppressive functions. Here, we report that in glioblastoma (GBM), the tumor suppressor ZBTB18 is targeted for protein cleavage by the intracellular protease calpain. The N-terminal (Nte) ZBTB18 cleaved fragment localizes to the cytoplasm and thus, is unable to exert the gene expression repressive function of the uncleaved protein. Mass spectrometry (MS) analysis indicates that the Nte ZBTB18 short form (SF) interacts with C-terminal (Cte) binding proteins 1 and 2 (CTBP1/2), which appear to be involved in HIF1A signaling activation. In fact, we show that the new ZBTB18 product activates HIF1A-regulated genes, which in turn lead to increased lipid uptake, lipid droplets (LD) accumulation, and enhanced metabolic activity. We propose that calpain-mediated ZBTB18 cleavage represents a new mechanism to counteract ZBTB18 tumor suppression and increase tumor-promoting functions in GBM cells.
    Keywords:  Biochemistry; Cancer; Molecular biology; Transcriptomics
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.104625
  11. Cancer Res. 2022 Jul 05. 82(13): 2354-2356
    Driving with Both Feet: Supplementing AKG While Inhibiting BCAT1 Leads to Synthetic Lethality in GBM.
    Noah Meurs, Deepak Nagrath.
      Understanding how carcinogenesis can expose cancers to synthetically lethal vulnerabilities has been an essential underpinning of development of modern anticancer therapeutics. Isocitrate dehydrogenase wild-type (IDHWT) glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), which is known to have upregulated branched-chain amino acid transaminase 1 (BCAT1) expression, has not had treatments developed to the same extent as the IDH mutant counterpart, despite making up the majority of cases. In this issue, Zhang and colleagues utilize a metabolic screen to identify α-ketoglutarate (AKG) as a synthetically lethal treatment in conjunction with BCAT1 inhibition in IDHWT GBM. These treatments synergize in a multipronged approach that limits substrate catabolism and disrupts mitochondrial homeostasis through perturbing the balance of NAD+/NADH, leading to mTORC1 inhibition and a reduction of nucleotide biosynthesis. Based on these results, the authors propose combination treatment targeting branched chain amino acid catabolism as a potential option for patients with IDHWT GBM. See related article by Zhang et al., p. 2388.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-22-1619
  12. Nat Cancer. 2022 Jul 04.
    Structural variants shape driver combinations and outcomes in pediatric high-grade glioma.
    Frank P B Dubois, Ofer Shapira, Noah F Greenwald, Travis Zack, Jeremiah Wala, Jessica W Tsai, Alexander Crane, Audrey Baguette, Djihad Hadjadj, Ashot S Harutyunyan, Kiran H Kumar, Mirjam Blattner-Johnson, Jayne Vogelzang, Cecilia Sousa, Kyung Shin Kang, Claire Sinai, Dayle K Wang, Prasidda Khadka, Kathleen Lewis, Lan Nguyen, Hayley Malkin, Patricia Ho, Ryan O'Rourke, Shu Zhang, Rose Gold, Davy Deng, Jonathan Serrano, Matija Snuderl, Chris Jones, Karen D Wright, Susan N Chi, Jacques Grill, Claudia L Kleinman, Liliana C Goumnerova, Nada Jabado, David T W Jones, Mark W Kieran, Keith L Ligon, Rameen Beroukhim, Pratiti Bandopadhayay.
      We analyzed the contributions of structural variants (SVs) to gliomagenesis across 179 pediatric high-grade gliomas (pHGGs). The most recurrent SVs targeted MYC isoforms and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), including an SV amplifying a MYC enhancer in 12% of diffuse midline gliomas (DMG), indicating an underappreciated role for MYC in pHGG. SV signature analysis revealed that tumors with simple signatures were TP53 wild type (TP53WT) but showed alterations in TP53 pathway members PPM1D and MDM4. Complex signatures were associated with direct aberrations in TP53, CDKN2A and RB1 early in tumor evolution and with later-occurring extrachromosomal amplicons. All pHGGs exhibited at least one simple-SV signature, but complex-SV signatures were primarily restricted to subsets of H3.3K27M DMGs and hemispheric pHGGs. Importantly, DMGs with complex-SV signatures were associated with shorter overall survival independent of histone mutation and TP53 status. These data provide insight into the impact of SVs on gliomagenesis and the mechanisms that shape them.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s43018-022-00403-z
  13. Dev Cell. 2022 Jun 30. pii: S1534-5807(22)00446-4. [Epub ahead of print]
    Interferon-γ resistance and immune evasion in glioma develop via Notch-regulated co-evolution of malignant and immune cells.
    Elena Parmigiani, Robert Ivanek, Chiara Rolando, Katrin Hafen, Gleb Turchinovich, Frank Michael Lehmann, Alexandra Gerber, Sime Brkic, Stephan Frank, Sara C Meyer, Hiroaki Wakimoto, Murat Günel, Angeliki Louvi, Luigi Mariani, Daniela Finke, Georg Holländer, Gregor Hutter, Roxane Tussiwand, Verdon Taylor, Claudio Giachino.
      Immune surveillance is critical to prevent tumorigenesis. Gliomas evade immune attack, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. We show that glioma cells can sustain growth independent of immune system constraint by reducing Notch signaling. Loss of Notch activity in a mouse model of glioma impairs MHC-I and cytokine expression and curtails the recruitment of anti-tumor immune cell populations in favor of immunosuppressive tumor-associated microglia/macrophages (TAMs). Depletion of T cells simulates Notch inhibition and facilitates tumor initiation. Furthermore, Notch-depleted glioma cells acquire resistance to interferon-γ and TAMs re-educating therapy. Decreased interferon response and cytokine expression by human and mouse glioma cells correlate with low Notch activity. These effects are paralleled by upregulation of oncogenes and downregulation of quiescence genes. Hence, suppression of Notch signaling enables gliomas to evade immune surveillance and increases aggressiveness. Our findings provide insights into how brain tumor cells shape their microenvironment to evade immune niche control.
    Keywords:  MHC; MYC; T cells; cytokines; immune evasion; interferon-γ; niche; tumor microenvironment; tumor suppressor; tumor-associated microglia/macrophages
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2022.06.006
  14. Cancers (Basel). 2022 Jun 27. pii: 3128. [Epub ahead of print]14(13):
    Dynamic Interactions between Tumor Cells and Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells in Glioblastoma.
    Erika Testa, Claudia Palazzo, Roberta Mastrantonio, Maria Teresa Viscomi.
      GBM is the most aggressive brain tumor among adults. It is characterized by extensive vascularization, and its further growth and recurrence depend on the formation of new blood vessels. In GBM, tumor angiogenesis is a multi-step process involving the proliferation, migration and differentiation of BMECs under the stimulation of specific signals derived from the cancer cells through a wide variety of communication routes. In this review, we discuss the dynamic interaction between BMECs and tumor cells by providing evidence of how tumor cells hijack the BMECs for the formation of new vessels. Tumor cell-BMECs interplay involves multiple routes of communication, including soluble factors, such as chemokines and cytokines, direct cell-cell contact and extracellular vesicles that participate in and fuel this cooperation. We also describe how this interaction is able to modify the BMECs structure, metabolism and physiology in a way that favors tumor growth and invasiveness. Finally, we briefly reviewed the recent advances and the potential future implications of some high-throughput 3D models to better understanding the complexity of BMECs-tumor cell interaction.
    Keywords:  angiogenesis; cancer; endothelial cells; extracellular vesicles; miRNA; neovascularization; tumor vessels normalization
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14133128
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