bims-mosdis Biomed News
on Mosquito distribution and disease
Issue of 2022‒07‒24
eleven papers selected by
Richard Halfpenny
Staffordshire University
  1. Entomological Investigation and Detection of Dengue Virus Type 1 in Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse) During the 2018-2020 Outbreak in Zhejiang Province, China.
  2. Comparison of entomological impacts of two methods of intervention designed to control Anopheles gambiae s.l. via swarm killing in Western Burkina Faso.
  3. Human IgG responses to the Aedes albopictus 34k2 salivary protein: analyses in Réunion Island and Bolivia confirm its suitability as marker of host exposure to the tiger mosquito.
  4. MOSQUITO AND ARBOVIRUS SURVEILLANCE AT BRADSHAW FIELD TRAINING AREA, NORTHERN TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA.
  5. Insecticide-treated eave nets and window screens for malaria control in Chalinze district, Tanzania: a study protocol for a household randomised control trial.
  6. Moderate Rainfall and High Humidity During the Monsoon Season, Negligence in Using Malaria Protection Methods and High Proportion of Mild Symptomatic Patients Were the Driving Forces for Upsurge of Malaria Cases in 2018 Among Tea Tribe Populations in Endemic Dolonibasti Health Sub-center, Udalguri District, Assam State, North-East India.
  7. Detection of Wolbachia in Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the State of Maranhão, Brazil.
  8. Early start of seasonal transmission and co-circulation of West Nile virus lineage 2 and a newly introduced lineage 1 strain, northern Italy, June 2022.
  9. Epidemiology of yellow fever virus in humans, arthropods, and non-human primates in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
  10. An impact assessment of insecticides application on the non-targeted mosquito Aedes albopictus (Skuse) in Punjab rice fields, Pakistan.
  11. CONCRETE URBAN REFUGIA FOR CULEX QUINQUEFASCIATUS, IMPACT OF SUMMER STRESSORS, AND STRATEGIES ADOPTED TO OVERSUMMER.
  1. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022 ;12 834766
    Entomological Investigation and Detection of Dengue Virus Type 1 in Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse) During the 2018-2020 Outbreak in Zhejiang Province, China.
    Qinmei Liu, Jinna Wang, Juan Hou, Yuyan Wu, Hengduan Zhang, Dan Xing, Jian Gao, Chunxiao Li, Xiaoxia Guo, Yuting Jiang, Zhenyu Gong, Tongyan Zhao.
      Mosquito-borne diseases are still threats to public health in the Zhejiang province of China. Surveillance of mosquitoes and the mosquito-borne pathogen is a vital approach for early warning, prevention, and control of the infectious disease. In this study, from 2018 to 2020, a total of 141607 female mosquitoes were caught by means of the light trap method. The main species were Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus/pallens (41.32%), Culex tritaeniorhynchus (47.6%), Aedes albopictus (2.5%), Anopheles sinensis (5.87%), Armigeres subalbatus (2.64%) and other mosquito species (0.07%). Cx. pipiens s.l. were the dominant species in two urban habitats and rural residential areas while Cx. tritaeniorhynchus was the main dominant species in the rural livestock sheds. In terms of seasonal fluctuation, Cx. pipiens s.l fluctuated at a high level from May to October. The peaks of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, An. sinensis and Ar. subalbatus were in July. In addition, a total of 693 Ae. albopictus were collected with Biogents Mosquitaire CO2 traps in emergency surveillance of dengue fever (DF) and screened for dengue virus infection. There were three circumstances of collection: The first: the sampling time before mosquito control during the local outbreak of DF in Lucheng of Wenzhou, 2019; The second circumstance: the sampling time after mosquito control during the local outbreak of DF of other cities in 2018-2019; The third circumstance: past DF epidemic areas the sampling time before mosquito control during the local outbreak of DF in Lucheng, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 2019. The pools formed by mosquitoes collected in these three circumstances were 3 (6.1%), 35 (71.5%), and 11 (22.4%) respectively. Of the 49 pools tested, only one in the first circumstance was positive. The full-length dengue virus sequence of ZJWZ/2019 was obtained by sequencing and uploaded to the NCBI as number OK448162. Full-length nucleotide and amino acid homology analyses showed that ZJWZ2019 and Wenzhou DF serum isolates ZJWZ-62/2019 (MW582816) and ZJWZ-18/2019 (MW582815) had the highest homology. The analysis of full genome and E gene phylogenetic trees showed that ZJWZ2019 belonged to serotype 1, genotype I, lineage II, which was evolutionarily related to OK159963/Cambodia/2019. It implies that ZJWZ2019 originated in Cambodia. This study showed the species composition, seasonal dynamics of mosquitoes in different habitats in Zhejiang province and confirmed the role of Ae. albopictus in the transmission cycle of in outbreak of DF in the Lucheng district of Wenzhou in 2019, suggesting the importance of monitoring of vector Aedes infected dengue virus in the prevention and control of DF.
    Keywords:  Aedes albopictus; complete genome; dengue virus type 1; entomological investigation; species composition
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2022.834766
  2. Sci Rep. 2022 Jul 20. 12(1): 12397
    Comparison of entomological impacts of two methods of intervention designed to control Anopheles gambiae s.l. via swarm killing in Western Burkina Faso.
    Simon P Sawadogo, Abdoulaye Niang, Sean L Wu, Azize A Millogo, Jane Bonds, Mark Latham, Roch K Dabiré, Allison Tatarsky, Frederic Tripet, Abdoulaye Diabaté.
      Outdoor biting constitutes a major limitation of current vector control based primarily on long-lasting insecticidal nets and indoor residual spraying, both of which are indoor interventions. Consequently, malaria elimination will not be achieved unless additional tools are found to deal with the residual malaria transmission and the associated vector dynamics. In this study we tested a new vector control approach for rapidly crashing mosquito populations and disrupting malaria transmission in Africa. This method targets the previously neglected swarming and outdoor nocturnal behaviors of both male and female Anopheles mosquitoes. It involved accurate identification and targeted spraying of mosquito swarms to suppress adult malaria vector populations and their vectorial capacities. The impact of targeted spraying was compared to broadcast spraying and evaluated simultaneously. The effects of the two interventions were very similar, no significant differences between targeted spraying and broadcast spraying were found for effects on density, insemination or parity rate. However, targeted spraying was found to be significantly more effective than broadcast spraying at reducing the number of bites per person. As expected, each intervention had a highly significant impact upon all parameters measured, but the targeted swarm spraying required less insecticide.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-16649-7
  3. Parasit Vectors. 2022 Jul 20. 15(1): 260
    Human IgG responses to the Aedes albopictus 34k2 salivary protein: analyses in Réunion Island and Bolivia confirm its suitability as marker of host exposure to the tiger mosquito.
    Sara Buezo Montero, Paolo Gabrieli, Anne Poinsignon, Bi Zamble Hubert Zamble, Fabrizio Lombardo, Franck Remoue, Bruno Arcà.
      BACKGROUND: The rapid worldwide spreading of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus is expanding the risk of arboviral diseases transmission, pointing out the urgent need to improve monitoring and control of mosquito vector populations. Assessment of human-vector contact, currently estimated by classical entomological methods, is crucial to guide planning and implementation of control measures and evaluate transmission risk. Antibody responses to mosquito genus-specific salivary proteins are emerging as a convenient complementary tool for assessing host exposure to vectors. We previously showed that IgG responses to the Ae. albopictus 34k2 salivary protein (al34k2) allow detection of seasonal and geographic variation of human exposure to the tiger mosquito in two temperate areas of Northeast Italy. The main aim of this study was to confirm and extend these promising findings to tropical areas with ongoing arboviral transmission.METHODS: IgG responses to al34k2 and to the Ae. aegypti orthologous protein ae34k2 were measured by ELISA in cohorts of subjects only exposed to Ae. albopictus (Réunion Island), only exposed to Ae. aegypti (Bolivia) or unexposed to both these vectors (North of France).
    RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Anti-al34k2 IgG levels were significantly higher in sera of individuals from Réunion Island than in unexposed controls, indicating that al34k2 may be a convenient and reliable proxy for whole saliva or salivary gland extracts as an indicator of human exposure to Ae. albopictus. Bolivian subjects, exposed to bites of Ae. aegypti, carried in their sera IgG recognizing the Ae. albopictus al34k2 protein, suggesting that this salivary antigen can also detect, even though with low sensitivity, human exposure to Ae. aegypti. On the contrary, due to the high background observed in unexposed controls, the recombinant ae34k2 appeared not suitable for the evaluation of human exposure to Aedes mosquitoes. Overall, this study confirmed the suitability of anti-al34k2 IgG responses as a specific biomarker of human exposure to Ae. albopictus and, to a certain extent, to Ae. aegypti. Immunoassays based on al34k2 are expected to be especially effective in areas where Ae. albopictus is the main arboviral vector but may also be useful in areas where Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti coexist.
    Keywords:  34k2 salivary protein; Aedes aegypti; Aedes albopictus; Host exposure; Human-vector contact; Serological marker; Vector control
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-022-05383-8
  4. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 2022 Jul 19.
    MOSQUITO AND ARBOVIRUS SURVEILLANCE AT BRADSHAW FIELD TRAINING AREA, NORTHERN TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA.
    Weng K Chow, Wenjun Liu, Stephen P Frances.
      Mosquito surveillance and mosquito-borne arbovirus detections in the area of Bradshaw Field Training Area (BFTA) in Northern Territory, Australia, have not been previously documented. A survey to record the mosquito species within BFTA and determine if arboviruses are present in them was conducted in April 2013. A total of 8,530 mosquitoes were collected, using carbon dioxide-baited encephalitis virus surveillance traps, and the predominant species were Aedes normanensis, which was 74.2% of the mosquitoes collected, and Anopheles annulipes (11.1%), An. amictus (2.9%), and An. meraukensis (2.4%). The mean number of mosquitoes collected was 120.1 ± 13.7 per trap in the 71 traps placed. This study has shown mosquito abundance in the eastern area of BFTA during 2 wk of April 2013 was of high density, and therefore a heightened risk of arbovirus transmission. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and virus isolation identified a single Barmah Forest virus strain from a pool of Ae. normanensis, a positive rate of 1/174 (0.57%). This study has provided the 1st survey of mosquitoes and potential mosquito-borne virus transmission in BFTA.
    Keywords:   Aedes normanensis ; Anopheles ; Barmah Forest virus; Bradshaw Field Training Area; Northern Territory
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.2987/22-7071
  5. Trials. 2022 Jul 19. 23(1): 578
    Insecticide-treated eave nets and window screens for malaria control in Chalinze district, Tanzania: a study protocol for a household randomised control trial.
    Olukayode G Odufuwa, Sarah Jane Moore, Zawadi Mageni Mboma, Emmanuel Mbuba, Joseph Barnabas Muganga, Jason Moore, Rose Philipo, Mohammed Ally Rashid, Rune Bosselmann, Ole Skovmand, John Bradley.
      BACKGROUND: Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have contributed to the reduction of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, including Tanzania. However, they rely on daily user behaviour and high coverage which is difficult to maintain. Also, insecticide resistance among malaria vector mosquitoes is contributing to reduced efficacy of control tools. To overcome these problems, we propose to evaluate a new tool for house modification, the insecticide-treated eave nets (ITENs) in combination with insecticide-treated window screens (ITWS) incorporated with dual active ingredient (dual AI) for the control of malaria.METHODS: Four hundred and fifty (450) households with intact walls, open eaves without screens or nets on the windows in Chalinze district will be eligible and recruited upon written informed consent. The households will be randomly allocated into two arms: one with ITENs and ITWS installed and the other without. Malaria parasite detection using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) will be conducted shortly after the long rain (June/July, 2022) as the primary outcome and shortly after the short rain (January/February, 2022) as the secondary outcome. Other secondary outcomes include clinical malaria cases, and density of malaria vectors and nuisance after the short rain and long rain. In addition, surveys will be conducted in households with ITENs and ITWS to estimate the intervention's cost during installation, adverse effects one month after installation, and presence, fabric integrity and user acceptance six and twelve months after installation. Bioefficacy and chemical content will be evaluated twelve months after installation.
    DISCUSSION: ITENs and ITWS have been shown in Kenya to reduce indoor mosquito density. However, it is not known if indoor mosquito density reduction translates into reduction of malaria cases. Data from the study will measure the potential public health value of an additional intervention for malaria control at the household level in areas of mosquito insecticide resistance that does not require daily adherence.
    TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study is registered on ClinicalTrials.gov .
    Keywords:  Eaves; House modification; Insecticide-treated nets; Malaria; Mosquito; Randomised controlled trial; Tanzania; Vector-borne diseases; Windows
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06408-4
  6. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022 ;9 913848
    Moderate Rainfall and High Humidity During the Monsoon Season, Negligence in Using Malaria Protection Methods and High Proportion of Mild Symptomatic Patients Were the Driving Forces for Upsurge of Malaria Cases in 2018 Among Tea Tribe Populations in Endemic Dolonibasti Health Sub-center, Udalguri District, Assam State, North-East India.
    Rahim Ali Ahmed, Hari Shankar, Syed Shah Areeb Hussain, Ananta Swargiary, Avdhesh Kumar, Mohammad Tarique, Pankaj Prabhakar, Harpal Singh Suri, Kuldeep Singh, Joy Kumar Chakma, Jyoti Singh, Afluza Begum.
      Malaria elimination is a global priority, which India has also adopted as a target. Despite the malaria control efforts like long-lasting insecticidal nets distribution, rounds of indoor residual spray, the introduction of bi-valent rapid diagnostic tests and artemisinin combination therapy, malaria remained consistent in Dolonibasti sub-center of Orang block primary health center (BPHC) under the district Udalguri, Assam state followed by abrupt rise in cases in 2018. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the factors driving the malaria transmission in the outbreak area of Dolonibasti sub-center. Malaria epidemiological data (2008-2018) of Udalguri district and Orang BPHC was collected. The annual (2011-2018) and monthly (2013-2018) malaria and meteorological data of Dolonibasti sub-center was collected. An entomological survey, Knowledge, Attitude and Practices study among malaria cases (n = 120) from Dolonibasti was conducted. In 2018, 26.1 % (2136/ 8188) of the population of Dolonibasti were found to be malaria positive, of which 55% were adults (n = 1176). Majority of cases were from tea tribe populations (90%), either asymptomatic or with fever only, 67.5 % (81/120) had experienced malaria infection during past years. The outbreak was characterized by a strong increase in cases in June 2018, high proportion of slide falciparum rate of 26.1% (other years average, 15.8%) and high proportion of P. falciparum of 81.2 % (other years average, 84.3%). Anopheles minimus s.l. was the major vector with 28.6% positivity and high larval density in paddy fields/ drainage area. Annual relative humidity was associated with rise in malaria cases, annual parasite incidence (rs = 0.69, 90%CI; p = 0.06) and slide positivity rate (rs = 0.83, 95%CI; p = 0.01). Older people were less educated (rs = -0.66; p < 0.001), had lesser knowledge about malaria cause (rs = -0.42; χ2=21.80; p < 0.001) and prevention (rs = -0.18; p = 0.04). Malaria control practices were followed by those having knowledge about cause of malaria (rs = 0.36; χ2 = 13.50; p < 0.001) and prevention (rs = 0.40; χ2 = 17.71; p < 0.001). Altogether, 84.6% (44/52) of the respondents did not use protective measures. We described a sudden increase in malaria incidence in a rural, predominantly tea tribe population group with high illiteracy rate and ignorance on protective measures against malaria. More efforts that are concerted needed to educate the community about malaria control practices.
    Keywords:  Anopheles; climate; community participation; malaria; outbreak
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.913848
  7. J Med Entomol. 2022 Jul 15. pii: tjac092. [Epub ahead of print]
    Detection of Wolbachia in Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the State of Maranhão, Brazil.
    Erick Barros Chaves, Agostinho Cardoso Nascimento-Pereira, Jorge Luiz Moraes Pinto, Bruno Leite Rodrigues, Marcelo Souza de Andrade, José Manuel Macário Rêbelo.
      Recently, the endobacteria Wolbachia has emerged as a biological tool for the control of arboviruses. Thus, we investigated the rate of natural infection by Wolbachia in Culicidae species from Maranhão, Brazil. For this, we amplified the Wolbachia surface protein gene (wsp) from mosquitoes collected in six localities of Maranhão, and positive samples were subjected to new analysis using group-specific primers. In total, 448 specimens comprising 6 genera and 18 species of mosquitoes were analyzed. Wolbachia DNA was PCR-detected in 7 species, three of which are new records: Aedes scapularis (Rondani, 1848), Coquillettidia juxtamansonia (Chagas, 1907) and Cq. venezuelensis (Theobald, 1912), in addition to Ae. albopictus (Skuse, 1894) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say, 1823, which are commonly described as permissive to maintain this bacterium in natural environments, and two species of the subgenera Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) Blanchard, 1902 and Culex (Melanoconion) Theobald, 1903 which could not be identified at species level. The infection rate of all species ranged from 0 to 80%, and the average value was 16.5%. This study increases the knowledge about the prevalence of Wolbachia in the culicid fauna and may help in selecting strains for biological control purposes.
    Keywords:   Wolbachia ; arasite; biological vector; endosymbiont; natural infection
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjac092
  8. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jul;27(29):
    Early start of seasonal transmission and co-circulation of West Nile virus lineage 2 and a newly introduced lineage 1 strain, northern Italy, June 2022.
    Luisa Barzon, Fabrizio Montarsi, Erika Quaranta, Isabella Monne, Monia Pacenti, Alice Michelutti, Federica Toniolo, Patrizia Danesi, Giulio Marchetti, Federica Gobbo, Alessandro Sinigaglia, Silvia Riccetti, Emanuela Dal Molin, Laura Favero, Francesca Russo, Gioia Capelli.
      In spring 2022, Europe faced an unprecedented heatwave, increasing the risk of West Nile virus (WNV) outbreaks. As early as 7 June 2022, WNV was detected in Culex mosquitoes in northern Italy, and - in the following days - in two blood donors, a patient with encephalitis, wild birds and additional mosquito pools. Genome sequencing demonstrated co-circulation of WNV lineage 2 and a newly introduced WNV lineage 1, which was discovered in the region in 2021.
    Keywords:  One Health; West Nile virus; climate change; genome sequencing; lineage; surveillance
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.29.2200548
  9. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Jul;16(7): e0010610
    Epidemiology of yellow fever virus in humans, arthropods, and non-human primates in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
    Martin Gael Oyono, Sebastien Kenmoe, Ngu Njei Abanda, Guy Roussel Takuissu, Jean Thierry Ebogo-Belobo, Raoul Kenfack-Momo, Cyprien Kengne-Nde, Donatien Serge Mbaga, Serges Tchatchouang, Josiane Kenfack-Zanguim, Robertine Lontuo Fogang, Elisabeth Zeuko'o Menkem, Juliette Laure Ndzie Ondigui, Ginette Irma Kame-Ngasse, Jeannette Nina Magoudjou-Pekam, Arnol Bowo-Ngandji, Seraphine Nkie Esemu, Lucy Ndip.
      Yellow fever (YF) has re-emerged in the last two decades causing several outbreaks in endemic countries and spreading to new receptive regions. This changing epidemiology of YF creates new challenges for global public health efforts. Yellow fever is caused by the yellow fever virus (YFV) that circulates between humans, the mosquito vector, and non-human primates (NHP). In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we review and analyse data on the case fatality rate (CFR) and prevalence of YFV in humans, and on the prevalence of YFV in arthropods, and NHP in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We performed a comprehensive literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, African Journal Online, and African Index Medicus databases. We included studies reporting data on the CFR and/or prevalence of YFV. Extracted data was verified and analysed using the random effect meta-analysis. We conducted subgroup, sensitivity analysis, and publication bias analyses using the random effect meta-analysis while I2 statistic was employed to determine heterogeneity. This review was registered with PROSPERO under the identification CRD42021242444. The final meta-analysis included 55 studies. The overall case fatality rate due to YFV was 31.1% (18.3-45.4) in humans and pooled prevalence of YFV infection was 9.4% (6.9-12.2) in humans. Only five studies in West and East Africa detected the YFV in mosquito species of the genus Aedes and in Anopheles funestus. In NHP, YFV antibodies were found only in members of the Cercopithecidae family. Our analysis provides evidence on the ongoing circulation of the YFV in humans, Aedes mosquitoes and NHP in SSA. These observations highlight the ongoing transmission of the YFV and its potential to cause large outbreaks in SSA. As such, strategies such as those proposed by the WHO's Eliminate Yellow Fever Epidemics (EYE) initiative are urgently needed to control and prevent yellow fever outbreaks in SSA.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010610
  10. PeerJ. 2022 ;10 e13697
    An impact assessment of insecticides application on the non-targeted mosquito Aedes albopictus (Skuse) in Punjab rice fields, Pakistan.
    Hafiz Azhar Ali Khan.
      Insecticidal control of insect pests of rice crop may influence the environment and nontarget species in rice fields. Aedes albopictus, one of the most common nontarget species present in rice fields, received lethal and sublethal exposures to insecticides used in rice cultivated fields. The present work explores the effects of insecticides in six non-targeted Ae. albopictus strains collected from rice fields with a history of insecticidal usage in comparison with a laboratory susceptible reference strain (REF) and a strain (LHR) collected from a rice field with no, or minimal, history of insecticidal usage. Two types of effects, the resistance development and performance of biological traits, were studied by selecting seven commonly used insecticides in rice fields in Punjab, Pakistan. The results revealed that the strains collected from the rice fields with histories of insecticidal usage exhibited significant levels of resistance to flonicamid, chlorantraniliprole, gamma-cyhalothrin, fipronil, monomehypo, triazophos, and carbofuran, when compared with REF and LHR strains. In addition, Ae. albopictus strains revealed a significantly weaker performance of biological traits (rate of pupae formation, survival of male and female adults (except females of OKR and MTN strains), and ovipositing females) than those of the REF and LHR strains. However, the fecundity of all field strains was only significantly different with that of the REF strain. In conclusion, the results highlight the problem of the negative effects of insecticidal usage in rice fields on nontarget species present in the same environment, and emphasize the need to adopt pest management activities that are safe for the environment.
    Keywords:  Ecotoxicology; Fitness cost; Insecticide resistance; Risk assessment
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13697
  11. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. 2022 Jul 19.
    CONCRETE URBAN REFUGIA FOR CULEX QUINQUEFASCIATUS, IMPACT OF SUMMER STRESSORS, AND STRATEGIES ADOPTED TO OVERSUMMER.
    Vimla Thareja, Radhika Basotra, Aradhna Sareen.
      We carried out vector surveillance to locate adult sites of Culex quinquefasciatus, a filarial vector, during the summer in North Campus, Delhi University, Delhi, India. It revealed that the adults were a rare sight but landed naturally and assembled in indoor sites during the peak summer in 2016 and 2019. New adults repopulated some of these sites, after the removal of the samples. These adults were used to study the impact of summer stressors on their morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits, and strategies followed to oversummer in the urban environment. Adults adopted endophily, vagility, and staying at a lower height as strategies to avoid lethality. Females outnumbered the males, and showed morphological, physiological, and behavioral consequences; the majority were unfed. In females, sublethal effects such as aberrations of body parts including mouthparts; distorted oviposition pattern, reduced fecundity, and precocious tanning of retained eggs; and reduced egg hatch rate contributed to reduced survival and reduced reproductive output, thereby reducing vector load during peak summer. These are novel findings. Source reduction of adults during this period would provide effective eco-friendly control of this established species and should be part of the vector management strategies so that swarms of adults during monsoon could be prevented.
    Keywords:  Adult sites; melanized eggs; mouthparts aberrations; oversummer; vector load reduction
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.2987/22-7073
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