bims-stacyt Biomed News
on Paracrine crosstalk between cancer and the organism
Issue of 2021‒11‒28
thirteen papers selected by
Cristina Muñoz Pinedo
L’Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge
  1. Tumor-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Induce Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Expression and PD-L1 Regulation in M0 Macrophages via IL-6/STAT3 and TLR4 Signaling Pathways.
  2. Metabolic Changes in Tumor Microenvironment: How Could They Affect γδ T Cells Functions?
  3. IL-1β and TNFα Cooperativity in Regulating IL-6 Expression in Adipocytes Depends on CREB Binding and H3K14 Acetylation.
  4. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthetase inhibition in the presence of pro-inflammatory cytokines contribute to the metabolic imbalance of diabetic retinopathy.
  5. The paracrine effects of adipocytes on lipid metabolism in doxorubicin-treated triple negative breast cancer cells.
  6. The Role of GDF15 as a Myomitokine.
  7. Pathophysiological role of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) in obesity, cancer, and cachexia.
  8. Sepsis induces interleukin 6, gp130/JAK2/STAT3, and muscle wasting.
  9. The Metabolic Control of Myeloid Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment.
  10. Crosstalk Between ER Stress, Autophagy and Inflammation.
  11. Endothelial Heme Dynamics Drive Cancer Cell Metabolism by Shaping the Tumor Microenvironment.
  12. Mitochondrial aspartate regulates TNF biogenesis and autoimmune tissue inflammation.
  13. Increased Plasma GDF15 Is Associated with Altered Levels of Soluble VEGF Receptors 1 and 2 in Symptomatic Multiple Myeloma.
  1. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Nov 09. pii: 12118. [Epub ahead of print]22(22):
    Tumor-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Induce Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Expression and PD-L1 Regulation in M0 Macrophages via IL-6/STAT3 and TLR4 Signaling Pathways.
    Marzia Pucci, Stefania Raimondo, Ornella Urzì, Marta Moschetti, Maria Antonietta Di Bella, Alice Conigliaro, Nadia Caccamo, Marco Pio La Manna, Simona Fontana, Riccardo Alessandro.
      Tumor-associated macrophages play a key role in promoting tumor progression by exerting an immunosuppressive phenotype associated with the expression of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1). It is well known that tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles (SEVs) affect the tumor microenvironment, influencing TAM behavior. The present study aimed to examine the effect of SEVs derived from colon cancer and multiple myeloma cells on macrophage functions. Non-polarized macrophages (M0) differentiated from THP-1 cells were co-cultured with SEVs derived from a colorectal cancer (CRC) cell line, SW480, and a multiple myeloma (MM) cell line, MM1.S. The expression of PD-L1, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and other inflammatory cytokines as well as of the underlying molecular mechanisms were evaluated. Our results indicate that SEVs can significantly upregulate the expressions of PD-L1 and IL-6 at both the mRNA and protein levels and can activate the STAT3 signaling pathway. Furthermore, we identified the TLR4/NF-kB pathway as a convergent mechanism for SEV-mediated PD-L1 expression. Overall, these preliminary data suggest that SEVs contribute to the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment.
    Keywords:  M0 macrophages; PD-L1; TLR4; colorectal cancer; multiple myeloma; small extracellular vesicles
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212118
  2. Cells. 2021 Oct 26. pii: 2896. [Epub ahead of print]10(11):
    Metabolic Changes in Tumor Microenvironment: How Could They Affect γδ T Cells Functions?
    Anna Maria Corsale, Marta Di Simone, Elena Lo Presti, Carmela Picone, Francesco Dieli, Serena Meraviglia.
      The metabolic changes that occur in tumor microenvironment (TME) can influence not only the biological activity of tumor cells, which become more aggressive and auto sustained, but also the immune response against tumor cells, either producing ineffective responses or polarizing the response toward protumor activity. γδ T cells are a subset of T cells characterized by a plasticity that confers them the ability to differentiate towards different cell subsets according to the microenvironment conditions. On this basis, we here review the more recent studies focused on altered tumor metabolism and γδ T cells, considering their already known antitumor role and the possibility of manipulating their effector functions by in vitro and in vivo approaches. γδ T cells, thanks to their unique features, are themselves a valid alternative to overcome the limits associated with the use of conventional T cells, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC) restriction, costimulatory signal and specific tumor-associated antigen recognition. Lipids, amino acids, hypoxia, prostaglandins and other metabolic changes inside the tumor microenvironment could reduce the efficacy of this important immune population and polarize γδ T cells toward IL17 producing cells that play a pro tumoral role. A deeper knowledge of this phenomenon could be helpful to formulate new immunotherapeutic approaches that target tumor metabolisms.
    Keywords:  tumor microenvironment; tumoral metabolism; γδ T cells
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10112896
  3. Cells. 2021 Nov 19. pii: 3228. [Epub ahead of print]10(11):
    IL-1β and TNFα Cooperativity in Regulating IL-6 Expression in Adipocytes Depends on CREB Binding and H3K14 Acetylation.
    Areej Al-Roub, Ashraf Al Madhoun, Nadeem Akhter, Reeby Thomas, Lavina Miranda, Texy Jacob, Ebaa Al-Ozairi, Fahd Al-Mulla, Sardar Sindhu, Rasheed Ahmad.
      IL-6 was found to be overexpressed in the adipose tissue of obese individuals, which may cause insulin resistance. However, the regulation of IL-6 in adipocytes in obesity setting remains to be explored. Since IL-1β and TNFα are increased in obese adipose tissue and promote inflammation, we investigated whether cooperation between IL-1β and TNFα influences the production of IL-6. Our data show that IL-1β and TNFα cooperatively enhance IL-6 expression in 3T3L-1 adipocytes. Similar results were seen in human adipocytes isolated from subcutaneous and visceral fat. Although adipocytes isolated from lean and obese adipose tissues showed similar responses for production of IL-6 when incubated with IL-1β/TNFα, secretion of IL-6 was higher in adipocytes from obese tissue. TNFα treatment enhanced CREB binding at CRE locus, which was further enhanced with IL-1β, and was associated with elevated histone acetylation at CRE locus. On the other hand, IL-1β treatments mediated C/EBPβ binding to NF-IL-6 consensus, but not sufficiently to mediate significant histone acetylation. Interestingly, treatment with both stimulatory factors amplifies CREB binding and H3K14 acetylation. Furthermore, histone acetylation inhibition by anacardic acid or curcumin reduces IL-6 production. Notably, inhibition of histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity by trichostatin A (TSA) resulted in the further elevation of IL-6 expression in response to combined treatment of adipocytes with IL-1β and TNFα. In conclusion, our results show that there is an additive interaction between IL-1β and TNFα that depends on CREB binding and H3K14 acetylation, and leads to the elevation of IL-6 expression in adipocytes, providing interesting pathophysiological connection among IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-6 in settings such as obesity.
    Keywords:  H3K14 acetylation; adipocytes; interleukin-1β (IL-1β); interleukin-6 (IL-6); tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα)
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10113228
  4. Exp Eye Res. 2021 Nov 17. pii: S0014-4835(21)00411-5. [Epub ahead of print]213 108845
    Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthetase inhibition in the presence of pro-inflammatory cytokines contribute to the metabolic imbalance of diabetic retinopathy.
    Gaganashree Shivashankar, Julie C Lim, Monica L Acosta.
      Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of vision impairment in working age adults. In addition to hyperglycemia, retinal inflammation is an important driving factor for DR development. Although DR is clinically described as diabetes-induced damage to the retinal blood vessels, several studies have reported that metabolic dysregulation occurs in the retina prior to the development of microvascular damage. The two most commonly affected metabolic pathways in diabetic conditions are glycolysis and the glutamate pathway. We investigated the role of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and glutamine synthetase (GS) in an in-vitro model of DR incorporating high glucose and pro-inflammatory cytokines. We found that GAPDH and GS enzyme activity were not significantly affected in hyperglycemic conditions or after exposure to cytokines alone, but were significantly decreased in the DR model. This confirmed that pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNFα enhance the hyperglycemic metabolic deficit. We further investigated metabolite and amino acid levels after specific pharmacological inhibition of GAPDH or GS in the absence/presence of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The results indicate that GAPDH inhibition increased glucose and addition of cytokines increased lactate and ATP levels and reduced glutamate levels. GS inhibition did not alter retinal metabolite levels but the addition of cytokines increased ATP levels and caused glutamate accumulation in Müller cells. We conclude that it is the action of pro-inflammatory cytokines concomitantly with the inhibition of the glycolytic or GS mediated glutamate recycling that contribute to metabolic dysregulation in DR. Therefore, in the absence of good glycemic control, therapeutic interventions aimed at regulating inflammation may prevent the onset of early metabolic imbalance in DR.
    Keywords:  Diabetic retinopathy; Glutamate recycling; Glutamine synthetase; Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; Glycolysis; Inflammation; Metabolic dysregulation; Retina
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2021.108845
  5. Adipocyte. 2021 Dec;10(1): 505-523
    The paracrine effects of adipocytes on lipid metabolism in doxorubicin-treated triple negative breast cancer cells.
    Ilze Mentoor, Anna-Mart Engelbrecht, Mari van de Vyver, Paul J van Jaarsveld, Theo Nell.
      Adipocytes in the breast tumour microenvironment promotes acquired treatment resistance. We used an in vitro adipocyte-conditioned media approach to investigate the direct paracrine effects of adipocyte secretory factors on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells treated with doxorubicin to clarify the underlying treatment resistance mechanisms. Cell-viability assays, and Western blots were performed to determine alterations in apoptotic, proliferation and lipid metabolism protein markers. Free fatty acids (FFA) and inflammatory markers in the collected treatment-conditioned media were also quantified. Adipocyte secretory factors increased the cell-viability of doxorubicin-treated cells (p < 0.0001), which did not correspond to apoptosis or proliferation pathways. Adipocyte secretory factors increased the protein expression of hormone-sensitive lipase (p < 0.05) in doxorubicin-treated cells. Adipocyte secretory factors increased the utilization of leptin (p < 0.05) and MCP-1 (p < 0.01) proteins and possibly inhibited release of linoleic acid by doxorubicin-treated cells (treatment-conditioned media FFA profiles). Adipocyte secretory factors induced doxorubicin treatment resistance, by increasing the utilization of inflammatory mediators and inhibiting the release of FFA by doxorubicin-treated cells. This further promotes inflammation and lipid metabolic reprogramming (lipid storage) in the tumour microenvironment, which breast cancer cells use to evade the toxic effects induced by doxorubicin and confers to acquired treatment resistance.
    Keywords:  Adipocytes; breast cancer; fatty acids; inflammation; lipolysis; treatment resistance
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1080/21623945.2021.1979758
  6. Cells. 2021 Nov 03. pii: 2990. [Epub ahead of print]10(11):
    The Role of GDF15 as a Myomitokine.
    Kornelia Johann, Maximilian Kleinert, Susanne Klaus.
      Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) is a cytokine best known for affecting systemic energy metabolism through its anorectic action. GDF15 expression and secretion from various organs and tissues is induced in different physiological and pathophysiological states, often linked to mitochondrial stress, leading to highly variable circulating GDF15 levels. In skeletal muscle and the heart, the basal expression of GDF15 is very low compared to other organs, but GDF15 expression and secretion can be induced in various stress conditions, such as intense exercise and acute myocardial infarction, respectively. GDF15 is thus considered as a myokine and cardiokine. GFRAL, the exclusive receptor for GDF15, is expressed in hindbrain neurons and activation of the GDF15-GFRAL pathway is linked to an increased sympathetic outflow and possibly an activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress axis. There is also evidence for peripheral, direct effects of GDF15 on adipose tissue lipolysis and possible autocrine cardiac effects. Metabolic and behavioral outcomes of GDF15 signaling can be beneficial or detrimental, likely depending on the magnitude and duration of the GDF15 signal. This is especially apparent for GDF15 production in muscle, which can be induced both by exercise and by muscle disease states such as sarcopenia and mitochondrial myopathy.
    Keywords:  anorexia; appetite regulation; cardiokine; cytokine; exercise; mitochondria; muscle; myokine; myopathy; sarcopenia
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10112990
  7. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2021 Nov 17. pii: S1359-6101(21)00081-2. [Epub ahead of print]
    Pathophysiological role of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) in obesity, cancer, and cachexia.
    Jawed Akhtar Siddiqui, Ramesh Pothuraju, Parvez Khan, Gunjan Sharma, Sakthivel Muniyan, Parthasarathy Seshacharyulu, Maneesh Jain, Mohd Wasim Nasser, Surinder Kumar Batra.
      Growth differentiation factor 15 or macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (GDF15/MIC-1) is a divergent member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily and has a diverse pathophysiological roles in cancers, cardiometabolic disorders, and other diseases. GDF15 controls hematopoietic growth, energy homeostasis, adipose tissue metabolism, body growth, bone remodeling, and response to stress signals. The role of GDF15 in cancer development and progression is complicated and depends on the specific cancer type, stage, and tumor microenvironment. Recently, research on GDF15 and GDF15-associated signaling has accelerated due to the identification of the GDF15 receptor: glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family receptor α-like (GFRAL). Therapeutic interventions to target GDF15 and/or GFRAL revealed the mechanisms that drive its activity and might improve overall outcomes of patients with metabolic disorders and cancer. This review highlights the structure and functions of GDF15 and its receptor, emphasizing the pleiotropic role of GDF15 in obesity, tumorigenesis, metastasis, immunomodulation, and cachexia.
    Keywords:  Cachexia; Cancer; GDF15; GFRAL; Obesity
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.11.002
  8. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2021 Nov 24.
    Sepsis induces interleukin 6, gp130/JAK2/STAT3, and muscle wasting.
    Lukas Zanders, Melanie Kny, Alexander Hahn, Sibylle Schmidt, Sebastian Wundersitz, Mihail Todiras, Ines Lahmann, Arnab Bandyopadhyay, Tobias Wollersheim, Lars Kaderali, Friedrich C Luft, Carmen Birchmeier, Steffen Weber-Carstens, Jens Fielitz.
      BACKGROUND: Sepsis and inflammation can cause intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICUAW). Increased interleukin-6 (IL-6) plasma levels are a risk factor for ICUAW. IL-6 signalling involves the glycoprotein 130 (gp130) receptor and the JAK/STAT-pathway, but its role in sepsis-induced muscle wasting is uncertain. In a clinical observational study, we found that the IL-6 target gene, SOCS3, was increased in skeletal muscle of ICUAW patients indicative for JAK/STAT-pathway activation. We tested the hypothesis that the IL-6/gp130-pathway mediates ICUAW muscle atrophy.METHODS: We sequenced RNA (RNAseq) from tibialis anterior (TA) muscle of cecal ligation and puncture-operated (CLP) and sham-operated wildtype (WT) mice. The effects of the IL-6/gp130/JAK2/STAT3-pathway were investigated by analysing the atrophy phenotype, gene expression, and protein contents of C2C12 myotubes. Mice lacking Il6st, encoding gp130, in myocytes (cKO) and WT controls, as well as mice treated with the JAK2 inhibitor AG490 or vehicle were exposed to CLP or sham surgery for 24 or 96 h.
    RESULTS: Analyses of differentially expressed genes in RNAseq (≥2-log2-fold change, P < 0.01) revealed an activation of IL-6-signalling and JAK/STAT-signalling pathways in muscle of septic mice, which occurred after 24 h and lasted at least for 96 h during sepsis. IL-6 treatment of C2C12 myotubes induced STAT3 phosphorylation (three-fold, P < 0.01) and Socs3 mRNA expression (3.1-fold, P < 0.01) and caused myotube atrophy. Knockdown of Il6st diminished IL-6-induced STAT3 phosphorylation (-30.0%; P < 0.01), Socs3 mRNA expression, and myotube atrophy. JAK2 (- 29.0%; P < 0.01) or STAT3 inhibition (-38.7%; P < 0.05) decreased IL-6-induced Socs3 mRNA expression. Treatment with either inhibitor attenuated myotube atrophy in response to IL-6. CLP-operated septic mice showed an increased STAT3 phosphorylation and Socs3 mRNA expression in TA muscle, which was reduced in septic Il6st-cKO mice by 67.8% (P < 0.05) and 85.6% (P < 0.001), respectively. CLP caused a loss of TA muscle weight, which was attenuated in Il6st-cKO mice (WT: -22.3%, P < 0.001, cKO: -13.5%, P < 0.001; WT vs. cKO P < 0.001). While loss of Il6st resulted in a reduction of MuRF1 protein contents, Atrogin-1 remained unchanged between septic WT and cKO mice. mRNA expression of Trim63/MuRF1 and Fbxo32/Atrogin-1 were unaltered between CLP-treated WT and cKO mice. AG490 treatment reduced STAT3 phosphorylation (-22.2%, P < 0.05) and attenuated TA muscle atrophy in septic mice (29.6% relative reduction of muscle weight loss, P < 0.05). The reduction in muscle atrophy was accompanied by a reduction in Fbxo32/Atrogin-1-mRNA (-81.3%, P < 0.05) and Trim63/MuRF1-mRNA expression (-77.6%, P < 0.05) and protein content.
    CONCLUSIONS: IL-6 via the gp130/JAK2/STAT3-pathway mediates sepsis-induced muscle atrophy possibly contributing to ICUAW.
    Keywords:  IL-6 signalling; Inflammation; Intensive care unit acquired weakness; Muscle atrophy; Sepsis; gp130
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12867
  9. Cells. 2021 Oct 30. pii: 2960. [Epub ahead of print]10(11):
    The Metabolic Control of Myeloid Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment.
    Eloise Ramel, Sebastian Lillo, Boutaina Daher, Marina Fioleau, Thomas Daubon, Maya Saleh.
      Myeloid cells are a key determinant of tumor progression and patient outcomes in a range of cancers and are therefore being actively pursued as targets of new immunotherapies. The recent use of high-dimensional single-cell approaches, e.g., mass cytometry and single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) has reinforced the predominance of myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment and uncovered their phenotypic diversity in different cancers. The cancerous metabolic environment has emerged as a critical modulator of myeloid cell functions in anti-tumor immunity versus immune suppression and immune evasion. Here, we discuss mechanisms of immune-metabolic crosstalk in tumorigenesis, with a particular focus on the tumor-associated myeloid cell's metabolic programs. We highlight the impact of several metabolic pathways on the pro-tumoral functions of tumor-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells and discuss the potential myeloid cell metabolic checkpoints for cancer immunotherapy, either as monotherapies or in combination with other immunotherapies.
    Keywords:  cancer; cellular metabolism; immunometabolism; immunotherapy; macrophages; myeloid cells; tumor microenvironment
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10112960
  10. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021 ;8 758311
    Crosstalk Between ER Stress, Autophagy and Inflammation.
    Sandhya Chipurupalli, Unni Samavedam, Nirmal Robinson.
      The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is not only responsible for protein synthesis and folding but also plays a critical role in sensing cellular stress and maintaining cellular homeostasis. Upon sensing the accumulation of unfolded proteins due to perturbation in protein synthesis or folding, specific intracellular signaling pathways are activated, which are collectively termed as unfolded protein response (UPR). UPR expands the capacity of the protein folding machinery, decreases protein synthesis and enhances ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD) which degrades misfolded proteins through the proteasomes. More recent evidences suggest that UPR also amplifies cytokines-mediated inflammatory responses leading to pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. UPR signaling also activates autophagy; a lysosome-dependent degradative pathwaythat has an extended capacity to degrade misfolded proteins and damaged ER. Thus, activation of autophagy limits inflammatory response and provides cyto-protection by attenuating ER-stress. Here we review the mechanisms that couple UPR, autophagy and cytokine-induced inflammation that can facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies to mitigate cellular stress and inflammation associated with various pathologies.
    Keywords:  ER-stress; autophagy; cytokines; inflammation; unfolded protein response
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.758311
  11. Biomedicines. 2021 Oct 28. pii: 1557. [Epub ahead of print]9(11):
    Endothelial Heme Dynamics Drive Cancer Cell Metabolism by Shaping the Tumor Microenvironment.
    Sara Petrillo, Francesco De Giorgio, Joanna Kopecka, Tullio Genova, Veronica Fiorito, Anna Lucia Allocco, Francesca Bertino, Deborah Chiabrando, Federico Mussano, Fiorella Altruda, Luca Munaron, Chiara Riganti, Emanuela Tolosano.
      The crosstalk among cancer cells (CCs) and stromal cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) has a prominent role in cancer progression. The significance of endothelial cells (ECs) in this scenario relies on multiple vascular functions. By forming new blood vessels, ECs support tumor growth. In addition to their angiogenic properties, tumor-associated ECs (TECs) establish a unique vascular niche that actively modulates cancer development by shuttling a selected pattern of factors and metabolites to the CC. The profile of secreted metabolites is strictly dependent on the metabolic status of the cell, which is markedly perturbed in TECs. Recent evidence highlights the involvement of heme metabolism in the regulation of energy metabolism in TECs. The present study shows that interfering with endothelial heme metabolism by targeting the cell membrane heme exporter Feline Leukemia Virus subgroup C Receptor 1a (FLVCR1a) in TECs, resulted in enhanced fatty acid oxidation (FAO). Moreover, FAO-derived acetyl-CoA was partly consumed through ketogenesis, resulting in ketone bodies (KBs) accumulation in FLVCR1a-deficient TECs. Finally, the results from this study also demonstrate that TECs-derived KBs can be secreted in the extracellular environment, inducing a metabolic rewiring in the CC. Taken together, these data may contribute to finding new metabolic vulnerabilities for cancer therapy.
    Keywords:  FLVCR1a; cancer cell metabolism; endothelial cell metabolism; heme metabolism; ketone bodies; tumor endothelial cells; tumor microenvironment
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9111557
  12. Nat Immunol. 2021 Nov 22.
    Mitochondrial aspartate regulates TNF biogenesis and autoimmune tissue inflammation.
    Bowen Wu, Tuantuan V Zhao, Ke Jin, Zhaolan Hu, Matthew P Abdel, Ken J Warrington, Jörg J Goronzy, Cornelia M Weyand.
      Misdirected immunity gives rise to the autoimmune tissue inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis, in which excess production of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a central pathogenic event. Mechanisms underlying the breakdown of self-tolerance are unclear, but T cells in the arthritic joint have a distinctive metabolic signature of ATPlo acetyl-CoAhi proinflammatory effector cells. Here we show that a deficiency in the production of mitochondrial aspartate is an important abnormality in these autoimmune T cells. Shortage of mitochondrial aspartate disrupted the regeneration of the metabolic cofactor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, causing ADP deribosylation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) sensor GRP78/BiP. As a result, ribosome-rich ER membranes expanded, promoting co-translational translocation and enhanced biogenesis of transmembrane TNF. ERrich T cells were the predominant TNF producers in the arthritic joint. Transfer of intact mitochondria into T cells, as well as supplementation of exogenous aspartate, rescued the mitochondria-instructed expansion of ER membranes and suppressed TNF release and rheumatoid tissue inflammation.
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-021-01065-2
  13. Acta Haematol. 2021 Nov 24. 1-8
    Increased Plasma GDF15 Is Associated with Altered Levels of Soluble VEGF Receptors 1 and 2 in Symptomatic Multiple Myeloma.
    Josefin Hidman, Anders Larsson, Måns Thulin, Torbjörn Karlsson.
      INTRODUCTION: In multiple myeloma, there is an increase in bone marrow microvascular density and enhanced renal lymphangiogenesis. Increased levels of the proangiogenic protein growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15) have previously been reported to be associated with poor prognosis in myeloma. A possible association between GDF15 and the soluble forms of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (sVEGFR) 1 and 2 has not yet been investigated, and a role for these receptors in pathological angiogenesis in myeloma is still to be defined.METHODS: Plasma levels of GDF15 and sVEGFR1 and 2 were determined by ELISA in patients with smouldering multiple myeloma (sMM), patients with symptomatic multiple myeloma (abbreviated as MM), and healthy controls. The levels were compared between the three groups, and correlation coefficients were calculated, as were Kaplan-Meier curves for GDF15 and sVEGFR1 and sVEGFR2.
    RESULTS: Levels of GDF15 were significantly higher in MM than in both patients with sMM and controls. A gradual decrease in mean sVEGFR1 concentration was observed, with MM > sMM > controls. Mean sVEGFR2 was lower in patients with MM than in controls. There was a positive correlation between GDF15 and sVEGFR1, and GDF15 correlated negatively with sVEGFR2. High GDF15 (>3 ng/mL) was associated with poor prognosis.
    CONCLUSION: In multiple myeloma, increased expression of GDF15 correlates positively with sVEGFR1 and negatively with sVEGFR2. It is possible that the altered levels of sVEGFR1 and 2 contribute to the increased angio- and lymphangiogenesis observed in myeloma.
    Keywords:  Growth differentiation factor-15; Multiple myeloma; Soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptors
    DOI:  https://doi.org/10.1159/000519888
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